Unit 2: Modes and methods of Linguistic Communication

Unit 2: Modes and methods of Linguistic Communication:

2.1 Oralism: Principles, Justification, Limitations

2.2 Educational Bilingualism: Principles, Justification, Limitations

2.3 Total Communication: Principles, Justification, Limitations

2.4 New Trends in Oralism Auditory Verbal Approach (AVA): Principles, Pre requisites & Stages

2.5 Sign Language & Signing System- distinguishing features

2.1 Oralism: Principles, Justification, Limitations

The roots of oralism can be traced back to the early 18th century. The first notable proponent was Samuel Heinicke of Germany, who believed in the efficacy of teaching deaf individuals to speak and read lips instead of using sign language. This approach gained momentum in the 19th century, especially with the establishment of the first oral school for the deaf in Germany in 1778.

The Oral Method uses speechreading (e.g., lipreading) and the maximal use of an individual's residual hearing.

The intended outcomes of the Oral Method are to develop and produce speech to communicate more effectively with individuals whose hearing is within normal limits.

Sign language uses manual movements, facial expressions, and other means of communication that don't involve speech. This, and its usage by the Deaf and hard-of-hearing, is known by most people. Much less heard of is oralism, a method of communication that, simply put, uses things like lipreading and mouth mimicking to get as close to real speech as possible.

The popularity of oralism was influenced by behaviourism. Behaviourism emphasises learning by heart and as a result, deaf students were taught the correct articulation of words and sentences but not their meaning. Because the goal of schooling was to prepare the students for the working world, articulation was the subject that was thought to help deaf students fit in with their hearing peers.

While the teachers admitted that sign language was easy and enjoyable for their students, they believed it had an adverse effect on the learning of spoken language and it was thought to isolate deaf people from other people. Sign language was also regarded as a poor, deficient and grammatically under-developed language, which did not lend itself to cerebral pursuits.

Oralism in communication refers to a method of teaching and communication that emphasizes the use of spoken language and lip reading for individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing. The principles of oralism focus on helping individuals develop their ability to communicate through speech, rather than relying on sign language or other visual communication methods. Here are the main principles of oralism:

1. Speech Development: Oralism prioritizes teaching the individual to produce speech sounds, focusing on articulation, pronunciation, and the mechanics of speech. This includes techniques such as speech therapy and auditory training.

2. Lip Reading: Lip reading (or speechreading) is a key component of oralism, where individuals learn to understand spoken language by observing the speaker s lip movements, facial expressions, and body language.

3. Auditory Training: Emphasizing the use of residual hearing, auditory training involves using hearing aids, cochlear implants, or other assistive devices to enhance sound detection and improve speech perception.

4. Avoidance of Sign Language: Oralism generally discourages or excludes the use of sign language, viewing it as a separate mode of communication that could limit speech and spoken language development.

5. Focus on Integration: One of the goals of oralism is to integrate individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing into mainstream society, where spoken language is the primary form of communication. The approach seeks to minimize reliance on "specialized" or "alternative" methods like sign language.

6. Individualized Instruction: Oralism often requires personalized teaching techniques, depending on the degree of hearing loss and the individual s ability to process speech sounds. This may include one-on-one sessions with speech therapists or the use of assistive technology.

7. Use of Residual Hearing: Oralism emphasizes maximizing the use of any remaining hearing capacity through amplification devices, training to process sound, and developing listening skills.

While oralism has been a widely used approach in the past, it has been criticized by some members of the deaf community and professionals in the field, particularly in regard to its exclusion of sign language, which many view as a rich and complete language in its own right. In response to these concerns, more inclusive approaches that incorporate both sign language and oral skills have gained popularity.

Justification and Limitations

One of the primary criticisms of oralism is that it can result in limited language acquisition for deaf individuals. Learning spoken language and lip-reading can be challenging, and some deaf individuals may struggle to develop language skills at the same level as their hearing peers. This can lead to difficulties in academic achievement and overall communication. Some critics argue that an exclusive focus on oralism can lead to social isolation for deaf individuals. Without a strong foundation in sign language, which may be more accessible and natural for many deaf individuals, they might struggle to communicate effectively within the deaf community. This can result in feelings of isolation and exclusion. The use of sign language has been shown to support cognitive development in deaf individuals, just as spoken language does for hearing individuals. Critics of oralism argue that by discouraging the use of sign language, cognitive development might be hindered, potentially affecting learning, problem-solving, and other cognitive abilities. Many within the deaf community view sign language as an integral part of their cultural identity. An exclusive focus on oralism can undermine the preservation and promotion of deaf culture and identity, as sign language is a crucial aspect of this culture. Emphasizing oralism may send the message that deaf individuals should strive to be more like hearing individuals rather than embracing their unique identity. Learning to speak and lip-read can be stressful and exhausting for some deaf individuals. The pressure to conform to oralist methods and expectations can lead to emotional and psychological stress, potentially impacting their overall well-being and mental health. While some individuals may thrive using oralist methods, others may struggle significantly. The effectiveness of oralism can vary widely based on factors such as the degree of hearing loss, individual communication preferences, and the availability of appropriate resources and support. With advancements in technology such as cochlear implants and hearing aids, the landscape of deaf education has evolved. While these technologies can facilitate oral communication for some, they are not a one-size-fits-all solution. Some deaf individuals may not benefit from or have access to these technologies, and the push for exclusive oralism might overlook their needs. In some cases, the exclusive focus on oralism can lead to a phenomenon known as "language deprivation." This occurs when a deaf individual is not exposed to a full and rich linguistic environment, which can have long-lasting effects on their cognitive and language development.

Oralism, as a communication approach for individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing, has both advantages and disadvantages. Here's a breakdown of both:

Advantages of Oralism:

1. Integration into Hearing Society:

o Oralism focuses on helping individuals communicate using spoken language, which can ease their integration into the hearing world. It allows for easier interaction with hearing individuals who may not know sign language.

2. Development of Speech and Auditory Skills:

o Oralism encourages speech development and enhances auditory processing skills, especially when combined with hearing aids or cochlear implants. This can help individuals better participate in verbal communication in various settings.

3. Improved Social and Educational Opportunities:

o As oral communication is often the dominant form of communication in schools, workplaces, and social settings, being proficient in oral language can open up a wider range of opportunities for individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing.

4. Technological Support:

o With advancements in hearing aids and cochlear implants, oralism can be more effective, as these devices can amplify sound and aid in speech comprehension, enhancing the individual s ability to understand spoken language.

5. Universal Communication:

o Spoken language is often seen as a universal mode of communication. Mastery of oral language can facilitate communication with a broader range of people, even in environments where sign language is not understood.

Disadvantages of Oralism:

1. Exclusion of Sign Language:

o Oralism often excludes sign language, which is a fully developed and rich language in its own right. By discouraging sign language, individuals may be denied a natural and effective mode of communication, particularly for those who are profoundly deaf and cannot easily learn speech or lip reading.

2. Stress and Frustration:

o The emphasis on learning spoken language and lip reading can create stress and frustration for individuals who may struggle to learn these skills, especially if they have little or no residual hearing. The process can be time-consuming and emotionally taxing.

3. Limited Accessibility:

o Some individuals with severe hearing loss may not benefit significantly from oralism, especially if they have limited or no hearing capacity. In such cases, relying on oral communication may not be effective, and they may feel isolated or excluded from the communication process.

4. Inaccurate Lip Reading:

o Lip reading can be challenging, as many words look similar when spoken (e.g., "bat" vs. "pat"), and the speaker's accent, lighting conditions, and facial expressions can all affect comprehension. It may not be reliable in all situations, leading to miscommunication.

5. Dependency on Technology:

o Oralism relies heavily on technology, such as hearing aids and cochlear implants. While these can be helpful, they are not always perfect solutions and may not work well for every individual. Additionally, not all individuals can access or afford such technologies.

6. Overlooking Deaf Culture:

o The focus on spoken language can diminish the value of Deaf culture, which includes sign language, a visual and cultural mode of communication. Oralism can marginalize the experiences and traditions of the Deaf community, leading to cultural and identity conflicts.

7. Difficulty in Expressing Complex Ideas:

o Some individuals may find it challenging to fully express themselves or understand complex ideas through oral methods alone, especially if their speech or hearing abilities are limited. In these cases, sign language might offer more clarity and ease of expression.

Oralism can provide significant benefits for some individuals, particularly those who have the potential to develop speech and auditory skills and wish to engage in the broader hearing world. However, its limitations, especially in terms of excluding sign language and being less accessible to those with severe hearing loss, mean that it is not universally effective. A more inclusive, multimodal approach that blends oral communication with sign language and other techniques is increasingly advocated to ensure that all individuals have access to effective communication tools.

2.2 Educational Bilingualism: Principles, Justification, Limitations

Bilingual education is a term that refers to the teaching of academic content in two languages, in a native and second language. Varying amounts of each language are used depending on the outcome goal of the model.

There are different program models that can be used in bilingual education. Historically, program models used for English Language Learners (ELL) have focused on helping students transition from their native language to English.

Transitional bilingual education involves the partial or total use of the child s home language when the child enters school, and later a change to the use of the school language only. The goal of transitional bilingual education is to transition students into English-only classrooms as quickly as possible. This is sometimes called early exit bilingual education.
Maintenance bilingual education involves the use of the child s home language when the child enters school, then a gradual change to the use of the school language for teaching some subjects and the native language for teaching others.

Principles of Bilingual Education

Cultural Preservation

One of the biggest draws of bilingual education is that it allows students to maintain and appreciate their cultural identity. It also fosters respect and understanding of diverse cultures within the classroom.

Global Competence

As globalization increases, being bilingual or multilingual equips students with essential skills to navigate and succeed in an interconnected world. This is, of course, valuable in our multicultural society but can be a real asset when traveling or seeking a job in the future.

Cognitive Development

Research shows that bilingualism enhances cognitive abilities, including problem-solving, multitasking, and creativity. Learning in two languages requires the brain to constantly switch between linguistic systems, which strengthens mental flexibility and executive function.

Bilingual education goes beyond simply mastering two languages. When students embrace this type of learning, they gain a richer understanding of the world s diverse cultures, which can boost their academic achievements and open doors to exciting career paths. There are many ways bilingual education is making a positive impact in classrooms right now.

Bilingualism in child development can bring both advantages and disadvantages. Bilingualism can improve cognitive skills such as multitasking, problem-solving, and critical thinking. It also opens up new cultural and social experiences, and can enhance career opportunities in a globalized world. However, bilingualism can also lead to language confusion, delayed language development, learning difficulties, reduced cognitive development, and social and emotional difficulties.

Advantages of Bilingualism in Child Development

Cognitive Development: Bilingual children have been shown to have improved cognitive flexibility, problem-solving skills, and executive function compared to monolingual children.

Cultural Awareness: Bilingual children have a broader understanding of different cultures and are more culturally aware, which can help to promote empathy and understanding.
Explore our relevant article If you want to learn more about the link between bilingualism and empathy.

Improved Academic Performance: Bilingual children have been shown to perform better academically, particularly in language and reading skills, compared to monolingual children.

Disadvantages of Bilingualism in Child Development

Language confusion: Children may mix languages or have difficulty differentiating between them, leading to communication problems.

Delayed language development: Children may take longer to reach milestones in language development as they navigate between two languages.

Learning difficulties: Children may have difficulty acquiring academic skills in one or both languages.

Reduced cognitive development: Studies have shown that children who are bilingual tend to have lower IQ scores compared to monolingual children.

Social and emotional difficulties: Children who are bilingual may feel caught between two cultures and struggle to find a sense of identity.

Learning a second language has pros and cons, but understanding them and finding a balance is the key. It helps understand a different culture and experience new things and is a crucial part of India s education system. Best schools in India emphasize learning other languages apart from a native language, such as Sanskrit, which gives a sneak peek into Indian history, and English to learn and be a part of the global integration that is taking place in the modern world.

Bilingualism (ability to speak two languages) and Multilingualism (ability to speak more than two languages) are the norm in India with more than one thousand indigenous languages belonging to four major language families. Of those, the Indo-Aryan and the Dravidian families include languages spoken by 95% of the population (1971, Census data reported in Vasanta, et al., 2010). India is perhaps a unique example where linguistic diversity has been a pillar of state division, while at the same time national identity has been attempted through the enforcement of Hindi as a national language, a source of socio-political debate especially in non-Hindi speaking states.

The constitutional right to mother-tongue education has in principle been considered in the three-language formula of schools. According to this Multilingual Education system (MLE), a regional language or mother-tongue (MT), English and/or Hindi and another Indian language are used for education. However in practice, MT education is provided for only a limited number of major standardised languages, with the number declining over the years, and from primary to upper primary and secondary school levels (Mohanty, 2006; 2008).

As multilingualism is the norm in India, it is particularly relevant to consider findings from a large body of recent research indicating that bilingualism or multilingualism leads to cognitive advantages, which could be argued to translate into good learning and thinking skills (Bialystok, et al., 2012). These advantages are supposed to be particularly obvious in children and the elderly given the respective developmental and declining pattern of cognitive abilities in these two phases of the lifespan (Valian, 2015; Alladi et al., 2013). Hence, an investigation of the cognitive profile of children, whose potential cognitive advantages drawn from multilingualism may be skewed by socioeconomic deprivation and/or lack of mother-tongue education, becomes necessary.

2.3 Total Communication: Principles, Justification, Limitations

Total communication is an approach based on valuing all means of communication equally. No single form of communication is valued above others and the aim is for individuals with communication difficulties to communicate in whichever way, or combination of ways, works for them.

Total Communication (TC) is philosophy of educating children with hearing loss that incorporates all means of communication; formal signs, natural gestures, fingerspelling, body language, listening, lipreading and speech. Children in TC programs typically wear hearing aids or cochlear implants. The goal is to optimize language development in whatever way is most effective for the individual child. Total Communication is truly a philosophy rather than a methodology. As a result, the implementation of the TC philosophy with one child may look entirely different than its implementation with another child.

The total communication approach is about finding and using the right combination of communication methods for each person. This approach helps an individual to form connections, ensures successful interactions and supports information exchanges and conversations. A combination of methods are used, which reinforce each other and strengthen meaning for the individual.

Total communication is also about creating a positive environment that will help you communicate and interact.

For example, this may mean:

Changing the lighting in the room.
Reducing the amount of background noise.
Moving position so that you can see or hear better.
Reducing clutter or removing things that are distracting.

The Principle of Total Communication

Total Communication is an approach that holds all methods of communication as equally valid. It broadly sections communication into three areas: non-verbal, language-based and symbol systems.

Here are some examples of different formal and non-formal types of communication that can be used:

Non-verbal: including body movements, breathing patterns and eye pointing. Textures, smells, temperature, intensive interaction and routine can also support communication by allowing an individual to anticipate what is going to happen next.
Language-based communication: including speech, lip reading, Tadoma, deafblind manual alphabet, giving and receiving information in large print, braille and block alphabet, and sign systems, including British Sign Language (BSL) and Makaton. Sign systems may be independent sign, on body sign or hand under hand sign.
Symbol systems: including using objects of reference (real objects and object symbols), Bliss, Widgit, Mayer-Johnson, Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS), line drawings, pictures and photographs.

These methods of communication can be used in any combination and will be individual to the person. At Sense, we work closely with each person to identify preferred methods and how to maximise understanding and expression.

When looking at communication it is important to understand the two different types of language skills, expressive and receptive. How somebody expresses themselves can form a foundation for learning and offer a starting point on which to build communication development.

Expressive communication is when you are sending a message, this may be in response to another person or to initiate communication. Receptive communication is when you receive a message from another person. An individual s expressive and receptive communication skills may not be the same. People will use a combination of the communication methods listed above, both expressively and receptively. For example, a person may receive and understand information in sign language and need symbols to help reinforce the meaning but will use sign language and speech to express themselves.

The Sense total communication approach values and uses all methods of communication so that everyone we support can communicate, understand and be understood.

The original intent of the Total Communication philosophy was to provide each child with the communication tools needed for that child to develop language competence. This should continue to be the goal of every teacher for every child. However, the philosophy of Total Communication has often been over-simplified and has been confused with the Simultaneous Communication methodology that simply combines sign and spoken language. Sign and spoken language can be effectively combined, but parents and professionals need to be sure that language competence is being developed optimally taking into consideration the strengths and needs of the individual child.

Pros and Cons of Total Communication:

Pros:

This approach can adapt over time, and you may use whatever method your child prefers, even if they are learning more than one.
Methods can be combined or changed.
Usually provides teaching in both visual and spoken language. Many consider this to result in the most proficient language for deaf children.
Children learn to interact in both the Deaf and hearing worlds, allowing for optimal exposure to language as well as social development.
Allows for the most expressive potential.
Allows for better transition into hearing environment such as a hearing grade school, or even college.
Emphasis on communication, not a particular method of communication. Child has the freedom.

Cons:

May limit child s language exposure in the long run, as they may never be exposed to complex language or complex sign. Instead, they use intermediate levels of both.
Not as useful for profoundly deaf students, as they lack access to spoken language compared to mildly deaf or hard of hearing students.
Goals of broad language skills in several modes of communication may result in difficulty attaining fluency in one method.
Total communication in group settings where one student prefers a certain method may leave the student feeling left out if the instructor is communicating in another method.

The term Total Communication is often confused with Simultaneous Communication or Sim-Comm, which, unlike TC, is a methodology, not a philosophy. Simultaneous Communication refers simply to the simultaneous use of sign and spoken language. It is driven by the natural word order of English, and most often does not include function words and word endings. The completeness of the sign component of Sim-Comm is dependent on the skills of the signer.

Although flexibility is at the very core of the TC philosophy and teachers are encouraged to use whatever communication tools are most effective for the individual child, it is often the predisposition, skills and experience of the teacher rather than the needs of the child that determines how Total Communication is implemented. An individual teacher may be very committed to the use of sign language, and in their enthusiasm to sign may neglect a child s auditory and speech potential. Conversely, a teacher may lean toward the auditory/oral aspects of Total Communication and may not provide a child with sufficient sign support to optimize language development. The reality of Total Communication is often an anything goes methodology, lacking in objective measures, guidelines and strategies.

A significant area of concern related to the simultaneous use of sign and spoken language is that the child does not get a clear representation of either English or American Sign Language (ASL). Given that ASL does not follow English word order, it cannot be spoken. Spoken language is, by nature, difficult to see on the lips, so the child is not getting the complete English message either. Some feel that is more effective to use either ASL without voice, or spoken English without sign. However, when used appropriately, sign can effectively facilitate the development of spoken language.

2.4 New Trends in Oralism Auditory Verbal Approach (AVA): Principles, Pre requisites & Stages

Habilitation is the intent to improve communication with deaf/HOH children who have not yet developed spoken language skills. Rehabilitation is different, however. Rehabilitation refers to improving communication skills of those who have spoken language skills prior to acquiring a hearing loss.

The Auditory Verbal Approach focuses on a listening and spoken language objective without the visual support provided through lipreading.

Auditory Verbal therapy supports deaf children to learn how to make sense of the sound they receive through their hearing technology (such as hearing aids or cochlear implants) so they can learn to talk like their hearing friends.

The intended outcomes of the Auditory Verbal Approach is for the individual to communicate completely through the use of listening and spoken language (LSL). The Principles of Listening and Spoken Language Auditory Verbal Therapy (AVT) are described below.

The Principles of Auditory-Verbal Therapy

1. Promote early diagnosis of hearing loss in newborns, infants, toddlers and young children, followed by immediate audiologic management and auditory-verbal therapy.

2. Recommend immediate assessment and use of appropriate state-of-the-art hearing technology to obtain maximum benefits of auditory stimulation.

3. Guide and coach parents to help their child use hearing as the primary sensory modality in developing listening and spoken language.

4. Guide and coach parents to become the primary facilitators of their child s listening and spoken language development through active consistent participation in individualized auditory-verbal therapy.

5. Guide and coach parents to create environments that support listening for the acquisition of spoken language throughout the child s daily activities.

6. Guide and coach parents to help their child integrate listening and spoken language into all aspects of the child s life.

7. Guide and coach parents to use natural developmental patterns of audition, speech, language, cognition and communication.

8. Guide and coach parents to help their child self-monitor spoken language through listening.

9. Administer ongoing formal and informal diagnostic assessments to develop individualized auditory-verbal treatment plans to monitor progress and to evaluate the effectiveness of the plans for the child and family.

10.Promote education in mainstream schools with peers who have typical hearing and with appropriate services from early childhood onwards.

With the application of the above-listed principles, parents can become the most important change agent for their children, and in conjunction with today s incredible hearing sensory technology, even children with severe and profound hearing loss can make use of auditory information to develop spoken language through listening!

Aural habilitation refers to the plan to improve communication with young children who have not yet developed spoken language. Rehabilitation is sought to improve communication ability of those who have become deaf or hard of hearing after the development of spoken language. If your goal for your child is to maximize the use of hearing and even speech, it is important to begin communication, auditory training, and speech/language therapy as soon as possible.

The Auditory Verbal Approach (AVA) is a communication methodology primarily used to teach children who are deaf or hard of hearing to use their hearing and spoken language skills. It focuses on developing spoken language through listening, with the goal of integrating children into the hearing world without reliance on sign language. AVA emphasizes the use of hearing aids or cochlear implants to maximize auditory input and promote speech development.

Here are the prerequisites of the Auditory Verbal Approach (AVA) for successful implementation:

1. Early Identification and Diagnosis of Hearing Loss

Early Diagnosis: The earlier a hearing loss is identified, the sooner intervention can begin. AVA relies on early intervention, ideally within the first few months of life, to make the most of the child s auditory development.
Hearing Evaluation: A thorough hearing evaluation and assessment of the child s hearing abilities are essential to determine whether auditory interventions such as hearing aids or cochlear implants will be effective.

2. Use of Hearing Technology (Hearing Aids/Cochlear Implants)

Appropriate Hearing Devices: Children using the Auditory Verbal Approach must be fitted with the proper hearing technology, such as hearing aids or cochlear implants, to amplify sound and facilitate auditory input.
Device Maintenance and Adjustment: These devices should be properly fitted and regularly adjusted to ensure they are providing optimal sound amplification for the child.

3. Support from a Skilled Professional

Certified Auditory-Verbal Therapist (AVT): It is crucial that the child works with a certified auditory-verbal therapist, who specializes in teaching speech and language skills through auditory channels. AVTs use specialized strategies to develop listening, comprehension, and spoken language skills.
Regular Monitoring: Ongoing therapy and monitoring are necessary to track progress and adapt the approach as needed.

4. Active Parental Involvement

Parent Education and Training: In the AVA method, parents play a central role in reinforcing speech and listening skills at home. They are trained to support the child s auditory development, guide practice, and integrate auditory learning into daily routines.
Daily Practice: Parents are expected to engage in daily listening and speaking activities to encourage language development outside of therapy sessions.

5. Consistency in the Learning Environment

Home and School Integration: Consistent, enriched auditory input should be provided in both home and school environments. The child must have access to spoken language and opportunities to practice listening and speaking in natural settings.
Minimizing Visual Cues: The goal is to emphasize auditory input, so caregivers and educators are often trained to reduce visual cues (like gestures or sign language) to encourage the child to rely on hearing and spoken communication.

6. Language-Rich Environment

Exposure to Language: A rich and stimulating language environment is essential for developing listening and speaking skills. This includes frequent verbal communication, storytelling, reading aloud, and engaging in conversation.
Focus on Speech Development: In addition to listening, there should be an active focus on speech articulation, vocabulary development, and grammar skills.

7. Motivation and Commitment from the Family

Family Commitment: AVA is a collaborative approach, and the family's commitment to the process is vital. Parents must be motivated and dedicated to consistently practicing with their child.
Long-Term Dedication: Achieving success in the Auditory Verbal Approach often requires years of consistent therapy and daily practice, so long-term family dedication is essential.

8. Child's Ability and Motivation

Cognitive Readiness: The child should be at a stage where they are capable of participating in auditory training. While AVA is often used with young children, older children can also benefit, provided they are motivated and cognitively capable of developing language through listening.
Hearing Potential: The child must have some degree of hearing potential, whether through natural hearing or with the help of hearing devices. AVA relies on auditory feedback for speech development.

9. Supportive Educational Settings

Speech and Language Support: Educational settings should provide ongoing support for speech and language development. This can include integration into mainstream classrooms with support from specialists who understand the needs of children with hearing loss.
Auditory-Verbal Education Programs: Some schools or programs may offer auditory-verbal curricula that align with the principles of the AVA.

To successfully implement the Auditory Verbal Approach, key prerequisites include early identification of hearing loss, appropriate hearing technology, skilled professionals, parental involvement, a consistent learning environment, and the child s hearing potential and readiness to engage in auditory learning. AVA is an intensive approach that requires commitment from both the child and family, along with a language-rich environment, to ensure optimal development of spoken language and listening skills.

The Auditory Verbal Approach (AVA) follows a structured process designed to help children who are deaf or hard of hearing develop listening and spoken language skills through their residual hearing. The approach focuses on using hearing aids, cochlear implants, and intensive auditory training to teach children to process sound and develop speech, without relying on visual cues like sign language.

Key stages of the Auditory Verbal Approach:

1. Foundation Stage (0 3 months)

Goal: Establishing the basics of hearing and auditory awareness.

Hearing Device Fitting: The child is fitted with hearing aids or cochlear implants, ensuring that sound is being amplified and is accessible to the child.
Auditory Awareness: The focus is on developing basic auditory awareness, which involves the child becoming aware of sounds in their environment, such as a bell ringing or a parent s voice.
Sound Detection: The child begins to respond to sound through reflexive reactions (e.g., turning toward a sound or showing interest in new noises).
Parent Involvement: Parents are introduced to the importance of consistent use of hearing devices and the importance of making the child aware of sounds in everyday activities.

2. Awareness and Attention Stage (3 6 months)

Goal: Increasing the child s awareness of sound and their ability to pay attention to auditory stimuli.

Sound Localization: The child begins to demonstrate the ability to locate the source of sound (turning toward sounds or voices).
Response to Sounds: The child shows more specific responses to sounds (e.g., smiling or stopping activity in response to a sound).
Parental Interaction: Parents continue to engage with the child using sound and speech, encouraging the child to recognize and react to different sounds and voices.
Early Play: The focus is on playful interactions that involve sound, like rattles, music, or simple auditory games, to promote listening and attention.

3. Sound Discrimination and Recognition Stage (6 12 months)

Goal: Developing the child s ability to distinguish between different sounds and recognize speech patterns.

Differentiating Sounds: The child begins to distinguish between different sounds, such as differentiating between voices, toys, and background noise.
Sound Identification: The child starts to recognize and respond to familiar words and sounds, such as the parent s name or common household sounds.
Sound Sequencing: The child may begin to understand the sequence of sounds in speech, such as understanding that a sequence of sounds (like ba-ba-ba ) forms part of spoken language.
Interactive Activities: Parents play an active role by naming objects, actions, or people to help the child connect sounds to meaning.

4. Speech Development and Language Acquisition Stage (12 24 months)

Goal: Developing the child s ability to speak and understand spoken language.

First Words: The child begins to utter their first words and understand basic commands, such as "come here" or "give me."
Expanding Vocabulary: The child s vocabulary grows, and they start using more words in their everyday communication, focusing on simple nouns and verbs.
Speech Clarity: The child s pronunciation starts improving, and they begin to produce more intelligible speech sounds.
Parent Training: Parents continue to use verbal communication throughout daily routines to expose the child to language. They also encourage the child to use speech in context.
Auditory Discrimination: The child can better differentiate between similar speech sounds (e.g., cat vs. hat ) and demonstrate this ability in their own speech.

5. Language Development and Social Interaction Stage (2 5 years)

Goal: Expanding language skills and enabling social communication.

Complex Speech: The child starts using longer sentences and begins to understand and use grammar (e.g., subject-verb-object structures, plurals, etc.).
Conversational Skills: The child learns to engage in basic conversations, including turn-taking, responding to questions, and initiating dialogue.
Storytelling: The child begins to use spoken language to tell simple stories and describe events or actions, showing an understanding of sequencing and time.
Generalizing Language: The child uses their language skills in various social situations, whether at home, at school, or in public.
Social Skills: The child interacts with peers and adults, developing more complex social communication abilities.

6. Academic and Complex Language Skills Stage (5+ years)

Goal: Refining language skills for academic success and effective social communication.

Advanced Vocabulary: The child s vocabulary continues to grow, with an increased understanding of more complex words and abstract concepts.
Reading and Writing: The child begins formal education, learning to read and write, with a focus on decoding and understanding written language.
Narrative Skills: The child can tell more detailed and structured stories, understanding the components of a narrative, including characters, plot, and settings.
Problem-Solving and Critical Thinking: The child begins using language for more sophisticated cognitive tasks, such as reasoning, problem-solving, and understanding cause-and-effect relationships.
Fluent Speech: The child has developed fluent and intelligible speech, and is able to engage in conversations with peers and adults in a variety of contexts.

These stages provide a framework for auditory-verbal therapy, and while the timeline may vary for each child, the emphasis is always on maximizing listening skills, speech, and language development in natural, everyday settings.

2.5 Sign Language & Signing System- distinguishing features

Sign language is manual communication commonly used by people who are deaf. Sign language is not universal; people who are deaf from different countries speak different sign languages. The gestures or symbols in sign language are organized in a linguistic way. Each individual gesture is called a sign. Each sign has three distinct parts: the handshape, the position of the hands, and the movement of the hands.

Indian Sign Language is a well-structured and coded gesture. Every gesture has a fixed meaning to it.

Sign Language is the only means of communication for deaf people. In the past years, there has been an increased interest among researchers in the field of sign language recognition. One of which is to introduce means of interaction from human to computer. Deaf and Dumb people rely on sign language interpreters for communication.

Finding experienced and qualified interpreters for their daily communication throughout life is a very difficult task and also unaffordable. Hence, a human to computer interaction system will prove to be a reliable and consistent solution in the future for deaf and dumb people. Many types of research took place in this area that has been carried out for more than twenty years. Sign Language is the only fully accessible language for deaf persons.

Learning Indian sign language help a deaf person connect with other deaf person and the larger deaf community. For a hearing person, learning Sign Language is an entirely different experience.

But it is still a great process that results in learning a new language. To be able to communicate with the deaf and hard of hearing people in one s community.

Sign Language & Orientation:

Learning Indian Sign Language is a necessity for a deaf person. This helps him/her connect with other Deaf persons and the larger Deaf community.

However, for a hearing person, learning Sign Language can be a useful tool:

1. To communicate with the Deaf Community and,

2. To bridge the gap between hearing and deaf people.

There is a need for sign language interpreters at various public places such as:

1. Hospitals,

2. Railway stations,

3. Police stations, and

4. The courts during proceedings that involve a deaf person.

There is an increasing number of corporate houses and companies that are recruiting deaf persons into their workforce. Deaf enabled foundation provides an orientation for the Human Resources personnel of companies that are willing to employ deaf persons. This orientation helps them understand Sign Language.

The Indian Signing System or Indian Sign System (ISS) is a convention for manually coded language used in India. It uses the words (signs) of Indian Sign Language with the word order and grammar of at least six official oral languages of India, including Urdu (Signed Urdu), Hindi (Signed Hindi), Marathi (Signed Marathi), Telugu (Signed Telugu) and Tamil (Signed Tamil).

Recently, India added some 2,500 new terms including words in English and Hindi to the Indian Sign Language (ISL) dictionary e.g., Aadhaar card, Blockchain, Ursa Nebula etc.

New terms were added during the celebration of International Day of Sign Languages 2024 with the theme Sign up for Sign Language Rights .

The UN General Assembly has proclaimed 23rd September as the International Day of Sign Languages in 2017 and it was first celebrated in 2018.
The World Federation of the Deaf (WFD) was established on 23rd September 1951.

Expansion of the ISL facilitated the deaf community s engagement particularly in scientific, cultural, and internet related contexts.
The expansion of the ISL dictionary was spearheaded by the Indian Sign Language Research and Training Centre (ISLRTC).

ISLRTC is an autonomous organisation established under Societies Registration Act, 1860 and functions under the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment.
It is dedicated to researching, fostering educational access and promoting Indian sign language as a linguistic system.

Teaching Indian Sign Language (ISL)

ISL Teaching Materials:

The complete set of ISL teaching materials consists of three courses at:

1. The basic,

2. Advanced, and

3. Professional levels (level A, B, and C).

4. The first two courses are completed and have been published in (19, 20), and

5. The third level is currently under development.

The team involved in the development of the teaching materials consist of a:

1. Hearing linguist responsible for the development of the course contents,

2. A deaf research assistant responsible for giving the course content in ISL on the teaching video and,

3. Several ISL models contributing scripted signed dialogues and freely signed texts to the courses.

The materials correspond closely to and are officially recognized in a syllabus for sign language interpreter training and were approved by the Rehabilitation Council of India in 2002.

All teaching materials are bilingual and are available in ISL and English.

That is, all explanations, instructions, and examples are signed by the deaf assistant, with voiceover and written text added in English.

Each course consists of a teaching video and a related workbook.

The units in levels A and B are built around grammatical topics so that all the main grammatical structures of ISL are covered.

It starts from easier and more basic structures to the more difficult ones. For example:

1. wh-questions, negation, and the expression of possession are part of the basic level course.

2. Whereas if-clauses and auxiliaries are part of the advanced level course.

American Sign Language (ASL) is a fully developed visual language that is used by members of the Deaf and Hard of Hearing community in the United States and parts of Canada. It has grammar, syntax, and cultural significance, separate from spoken English.

For many Deaf individuals, ASL is their primary mode of communication, and they identify with the Deaf community, which is rich with its own culture, norms, and identity. ASL allows individuals to communicate through signs, facial expressions, and body language, providing a full range of expressive capabilities.

Key Characteristic of ASL Users

Visual Communication:
ASL relies on hand signs, body movements, and facial expressions to convey meaning. This makes it different from spoken languages that rely on sound.
Cultural Identity:
Many ASL users consider themselves part of the Deaf community, which shares a strong cultural identity. ASL is not just a language but also a symbol of this cultural connection.
Language Independence:
ASL is not a derivative of English. It has its own grammar and linguistic structure, which means that being fluent in ASL does not automatically translate to fluency in written or spoken English, and vice versa.
Bilingualism:
Some ASL users may also be bilingual, using written or spoken English for specific tasks (e.g., reading and writing) while communicating primarily in ASL.

Challenges ASL Users Face

1. Communication Barriers:
In environments where spoken communication dominates (e.g., lectures, workplaces, meetings), ASL users may face challenges without interpretation or assistive technologies. Lack of accessibility, such as the absence of interpreters, can be isolating.

2. Misconceptions About ASL:
Some people misunderstand or underestimate the complexity of ASL, assuming it is just a manual version of English. This can lead to inappropriate accommodations, such as offering written English solutions instead of sign language interpretation.

3. Access to Education:
Educational systems are often not fully equipped to provide ASL interpretation or accessible resources, which can limit the opportunities available to Deaf students and faculty.

4. Social Integration:
ASL users may encounter social isolation in settings where others do not use or understand ASL. Communication can be more difficult in mixed groups unless appropriate accommodations (like interpreters or real-time captioning) are in place.

British Sign Language (BSL) involves a combination of hand shapes and movements, lip patterns, facial expressions and shoulder movements. It has its own grammar and is structured in a completely different way from English.

In BSL, you start with the main subject or topic. After that, you refer to something about the topic for example:

English: What is your name?
BSL: Name what?

In Northern Ireland, Irish Sign Language (ISL) is used as well as BSL.

Finger spelling is used when there is no particular sign for a word, good examples would be spelling out someone s name or an address. It can also be used to spell words if the signer does not know a sign or to clarify a sign that is not known by the person reading the signer.

Comparison of Sign Language vs. Signing Systems:

Feature	Sign Language	Signing Systems
Nature	Natural, independent language	Artificial system designed to represent spoken language
Grammar	Unique grammar and syntax	Follows the grammar and structure of spoken language
Cultural Importance	Central to Deaf culture and identity	Primarily used for educational purposes
Regional Variations	Has regional dialects (e.g., ASL, BSL)	Generally standardized, with less regional variation
Ease of Communication	Efficient, fluid, and expressive	Often more complex and rigid than sign language
Use	Everyday communication in Deaf communities	Typically used to teach spoken language to deaf children
Examples	American Sign Language (ASL), British Sign Language (BSL)	Signed Exact English (SEE), Cued Speech

Conclusion:

Sign Language is a natural, fully developed visual language with its own grammar and vocabulary, which is deeply tied to Deaf culture.
Signing Systems, on the other hand, are artificially created methods for representing spoken languages using signs, with the primary goal of aiding literacy or teaching spoken language to deaf individuals, often with a more rigid structure and less cultural significance.

Both systems serve important roles in communication for deaf individuals, but they cater to different needs: sign language is often used for everyday communication within the Deaf community, while signing systems are frequently employed in educational settings to support spoken language acquisition.