Unit 5: Literacy for DHH children

5.1   Meaning and types of literacy skills (reading, writing, numeracy, digital, financial, health and civic)

5.2   Pre-requisites of literacy and impact of deafness

5.3   Importance and development of foundational literacy & numeracy

5.4   Reading; stages, types and activities for developing and scaffolding

5.5   Writing; stages, types and activities for developing and scaffolding

 

 

5.1   Meaning and types of literacy skills (reading, writing, numeracy, digital, financial, health and civic)

 

 

Acquiring literacy is not a one-off act. Beyond its conventional concept as a set of reading, writing and counting skills, literacy is now understood as a means of identification, understanding, interpretation, creation, and communication in an increasingly digital, text-mediated, information-rich and fast-changing world. Literacy is a continuum of learning and proficiency in reading, writing and using numbers throughout life and is part of a larger set of skills, which include digital skills, media literacy, education for sustainable development and global citizenship as well as job-specific skills (UNESCO). Literacy skills themselves are expanding and evolving as people engage more and more with information and learning through digital technology. 

Literacy is generally defined as reading and writing proficiency, or the capacity to utilize language for reading, writing, speaking, and listening. In contemporary usage, the term represents the ability to read and write at a level sufficient for comprehension and communication, or the ability to comprehend and express ideas in order to participate in society. Traditionally, the basic literacy standard has been the ability to read the newspaper. The evolution of media and technology, however, made that standard obsolete in some modern societies. Proficiency in a specific area such as technology, the arts, or other disciplines, can also be referred to as literacy.

Here are four basic language competencies that can help improve how you communicate:

1. Listening

Listening refers to understanding, interpreting and analysing the speaker's message. Listening is an integral part of the communication process as it is vital for the listener to stay engaged and actively comprehend what is said. This helps increase clarity, ask relevant questions, frame appropriate responses and prevent misunderstandings. Listening is crucial when participating in meetings, discussions, feedback sessions and interviews. Listening attentively has several benefits that can be essential even after the conversation is over. Active listening can help you process and store information for later recollection. Focusing on what the person in front of you is saying can also help increase focus and enable you to articulate your thoughts effectively.

2. Speaking

Speaking is the verbal expression of your thoughts and ideas. Speaking effectively includes having clarity and fluency in your expression and vocabulary. It also includes other essential abilities such as confidence, passion and storytelling. Speaking skills are usually important when companies are hiring new employees. Strong speaking skills can help you progress in your career, contribute during meetings and improve your interpersonal relationships.

3. Writing

Writing involves presenting your thoughts in the form of text using the right structure and flow of information. Writing includes changing the format and tone of the text as per the target audience. Choosing the right vocabulary, medium and outline for what you wish to convey can ensure that your writing is interesting and delivers the intended message. Writing grammatically accurate text, using short sentences and researching comprehensively are some ways to make your text more impactful.No matter the role or industry, professionals often write emails, reports, letters and proposals. This makes writing skills essential for all professionals, particularly those in the IT, marketing, strategy, consultancy and data analytics industry.

4. Reading

Reading skills help understand different texts, their context and inference. These skills are crucial to improving your overall literacy skills as they can help enhance your vocabulary, expression, analysis and communication. Reading different text forms carefully, such as letters, messages, notes, memos, emails and reports, can help prevent miscommunication in your personal and professional relationships. Being attentive and focused while reading can also help you interpret the meaning of the text effectively and retain the information for a longer duration.

5. Digital Literacy

Digital literacy has entered in every one‟s life. If one has to remain with the changing times s/he has to learn how to surf data on the internet, use camera in the cell phone, be able to make Facebook entry, access You Tube and be able to send and receive messages. It includes knowledge of using smart phones, computers and its various applications. For example knowing how to use internet to browse websites, find relevant search engines, email text, prepare blogs/ PowerPoint presentations and do video conferencing. Functional digital literacy skills are given in some schools for students with intellectual disability.

6. Health Literacy

Health literacy is defined by Rootman, I (2006) as, The degree to which people are able to access, understand, apprise and communicate information to engage with the demands of different health context in order to promote and maintain good health across the life course .

Health literacy is an emerging concept that requires skills in health and literacy. Health literacy builds on the idea that both health and literacy are critical resources for everyday living. Health literacy will make empower human beings to control health as individuals, families and communities. The scope of health literacy can be at three levels:

      Functional health literacy: That is ability to understand the consent forms.

      Conceptual health literacy: The skills and competency to seek comprehend and use health information to make informed choices, reduce health risks and increase quality of life.

      Health literacy as empowerment: As informed consumers the ability to promote health, prevent disease, act collectively to improve the health through political system by exercising voting rights, advocacy or engage in social movements.

7. Financial Literacy

Finance or money plays an important role in the lives of human beings. Finance is the major reason for various social problems like un-employment, divorce, suicide, etc. Quality of life depends on financial wellbeing. Financial literacy refers to the knowledge and understanding of financial concepts thereby resulting in the ability to make informed, confident and effective decisions regarding money. In a broader perspective, financial literacy can be stated as understanding of economics and how economic conditions and circumstances affect household decisions (Worthington, 2006). A narrow definition of financial literacy focuses on basic money management tools such as budgeting, saving, investing and insurance (Natalie, Newton and Chrisann, 2010). It is the narrow view of financial literacy that is particularly relevant to individual decisions concerning financial matters.

8. Civic Literacy/ Political Literacy

It was evolved during the period of 1948-67 that is the knowledge and skills needed to actively participate in political matters. And the terminology of social education was introduced in 1948. The social education is defined as a course of study directed towards the production of consciousness of citizenship among the people and promotion of social solidarity amongst them. The five aspects of social education had core curriculum of five aspects:

      Health & Hygiene

      Family and community living

      Vocations

      Literacy and cultural activities

      Recreational activities (Shah S. Y. 1999).

It was imparted in various centers. Civic literacy is literacy for good citizenship. Citizenship involves both duties and rights. Some civic literacy programs emphasis duties and forget about people‟s rights. Some may emphasis rights and not duties. A balance is of course necessary. At a deeper level, civic literacy means a shared understanding of the approach to life of a group of people.

9. Numeracy literacy: It is the ability to reason and to apply simple numerical concepts. Basic numeracy skills consist of comprehending fundamental arithmetical operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.

Scope of Literacy Skills:

Here is why skills like reading, writing, speaking and listening can be crucial in the workplace:

• Reading can help develop thinking skills. Reading skills can help you interpret the information conveyed accurately. Reading also helps enhance your knowledge, build your thought process and improve your analytical skills.
• Speaking can enable you to convey your thoughts effectively. Talented professionals can express their opinions confidently, ask relevant questions and engage their colleagues effectively. This can help you make valuable contributions during strategy meetings and presentations, enabling career progress.
• Active listening can allow you to focus and understand better. Listening carefully to others can help improve your concentration, relationships and networking efforts. It may create a feeling of trust and empathy and enables you to understand your colleagues better.
• Writing helps communicate clearly and quickly. Strong writing skills can help you deliver your thoughts and messages unambiguously in emails, reports and memos. This clarity can be valuable in a workplace as it can help prevent misunderstanding and improve efficiency.

 

 

Literacy related problems of Child with hearing impairment

 

Literacy is an interactive process in which readers and writers attempt to construct or compose a working model of meaning. Reading involves reception and writing involves expression. There are multiple factors that contribute to the development of literacy in children with deafness or hearing impairment. Literacy development in children who are hearing has many similarities, but there are also some distinctive aspects for children who are hearing impaired or deaf. The regular education classroom's literacy activities can be beneficial for students who are deaf. CWHI do not acquire language naturally. When they learn to read they are confronted with two main problems. First most of them are severely deficit in their knowledge of verbal language. Secondly they have problems in perceiving the written word as reflecting language code.

There are some Errors which are generally made by CWHI in Reading

      Negative forms are difficult to comprehend than positives.

      Get confused with indirect question forms.

      Read word in isolation most of the CWHI do not relate words with other words in the sentence to comprehended the meaning.

      While writing answers from the text they do superficial visual matching of the words in the questions with the same words in the text.

      Make use of visual contiguity in written text so that a deleted subject is not inferred but is taken to be the noun closes to the verb.

      Negative forms are difficult to comprehend than positive.

      Have difficulties in comprehending figurative language.

      Comprehension of sentences is better in context than in isolation.

      Children with hearing impairment do not perceive the question which has same meaning.

There are some Errors which are generally made by CWHI in Writing

      Make errors in spelling, punctuation marks.

      Either omit or misplace conjunctions while combining sentences.

      Inflection are not used correctly.

      Make redundant use of preposition.

      Use more contents words like nouns, verb and use fewer adverb, conjunctions, auxiliaries case mark sheet etc.

      Make errors of addition (Of unnecessary words).

      Errors of word order in a sentence.

      Use simpler words, simple sentences and short sentences.

      Use incorrect tense marking.

      Over generalize certain forms.

      Tackle writing task sentences by sentence there is difficulty in liking sentences together through coordination and subordinations

 

Development of Auditory skills (Listening)

 

We learn language by hearing it from the moment of birth. Even after our language has fully developed, we continue to learn new words and new ways of expressing ideas. This learning happens largely through our sense of hearing. Much of what we know about our world is learned by overhearing the conversations of those around us, or through the myriad of audio streams that follow us through our day. When a child is born with reduced hearing, the development of language, vocabulary, and world knowledge can be affected.

Hearing aids and other devices can provide improved access to spoken language for children with hearing loss. Auditory aids, however, do not fix hearing to the degree that eyeglasses can fix a vision deficit. What a student hears through an auditory aid is likely not what you and I hear through the device. A student may hear what is said in the classroom, but may not understand the message due to many factors, such as incomplete access to speech sounds, background noise, unfamiliar vocabulary, delayed language development or a lack of familiarity with the person talking.

Importance of Learning to Listen

• A child needs to be able to interpret and attach meaning to information they receive from what they have heard and formulate a response
• Attaching meaning depends on their lexicon (vocabulary dictionary ) helped by their ability to visualize
• Listening comprehension is a key to reading comprehension and written composition
• Listening comprehension = language ability + background knowledge
• Listening Comprehension x Decoding = Reading Comprehension
• It all starts with being able to listen precisely!

Auditory Skill Development 

Auditory skills of children who are hard of hearing do not develop at the same rate or in the same way without specific teaching. The following checklists will guide interventionists and family members as they assess and build these important skills.

Sound Foundation for Babies and Toddlers Cochlear Corporation has a suite of resources to assist with listening and language development from birth to 6 years of age. The Sound Foundation for Babies resources is an awesome resource by Cheryl L. Dickson, that offers week by week activities that can be shared with families as a recommended website, or to augment activities discussed during early intervention. Each week includes a video tutorial and attention specific to audition, receptive/expressive language, speech, songs, rhymes, etc. Sound Foundation for Toddlers was created by Nancy Caleffe-Schenk.

Auditory Skills Checklist  Auditory skills develop sequentially in a hierarchy of increasing complexity. Most children without hearing loss will develop all but the most complex listening tasks by school entry, improving in their ability to listen in noise as their brain matures until age 13-15 years. Children with hearing loss typically require attention to auditory skill development if they are to learn all of the skills in the hierarchy, especially if they are to compete with typically hearing peers in a classroom. Good technology and consistent use is a critical factor in the natural development of auditory skills, but cannot guarantee progress of skill development without specific attention. Early literacy is primarily based on auditory skills making attention in this area a priority.

Functional Auditory Performance Indicators (FAPI) was developed in Colorado by Arlene Stredler-Brown and Cheryl DeConde Johnson (2001, 2003) and provides a step-by-step checklist of what to look for, and what to work on next, in developing functional auditory skills. A staple in many early intervention and early childhood programs for children with hearing loss.

Suggested activities for families to improve listening skills

1.  Read with your child! 

Try to engage the child as fully as possible when reading, and encourage him or her to explain what just happened or to predict what will happen next.  Ask why something happened in the story or what they would do in the character s situation.

2.  Play listening games, such as asking your child to point to a particular sound.

This type of activity will help a child to locate where a sound is coming from, which is a very important skill for orientation and mobility.

3.  Play I hear with my little ear .

Identifying different sounds helps the child to develop auditory discrimination skills.

 

Development of Oral Skills (Speaking)

 

Early exposure and consistent access to a complete language (signed, spoken, both, or other/augmentative and alternative communication [AAC]) are critical for communication development for all children. Role models in a language-rich environment along with early auditory and/or visual access to language using tools (e.g., eyeglasses, hearing technology) to support family-centered goals provide a strong foundation for optimal cognitive, communication, academic, social, and vocational outcomes (Joint Committee on Infant Hearing.

Child and family/care partner needs, goals, and preferences guide discussions about their desired outcomes and the family-centered supports and services needed to achieve those outcomes. Families may explore multiple languages and communication methods with their child. A child s best mode of communication (preferred and most effective) may change over time with changes in the child s needs, communication contexts, and educational settings. Audiologists and speech-language pathologists (SLPs) present evidence-based information about all languages, communication tools, and educational programs at the time of identification and as the child develops so that families/care partners can make informed, evidence-based decisions to meet the desired outcomes and dynamic needs of their children as they transition toward adulthood

Speech Therapy for conventional hearing aid users

The success of speech therapy with conventional hearing aid users will depend on the extent of their hearing impairment, their motivation to communicate with speech, the dedication of the team around the child (including parents and care-givers), and whether they want to follow the signing or speaking (or both) route.

A lot of speech work will involve listening activities and getting the child to discriminate sounds. This may initially be just simple everyday sounds or words, accompanied by pictures.

Deaf children who learn language with sign acquire vocabulary at a similar rate to hearing, speaking children, but deaf children who are exposed to only oral language, will develop spoken language vocabulary more slowly. They also find it harder to develop grammatical skills.

Speech development and expressive communication
Speech development can also be a difficult skill to cultivate with a hearing impaired child. Much of the success will depend on their level of residual hearing, how well they are aided and their motivation.

When considering speech development, we must be aware of a number of elements:

• Phonological awareness and letter sound knowledge
• Articulation of speech sounds.
• Prosody and intonation (sign language does not have this, but the use of facial expression adds emphasis to meaning)
• Voice quality is another aspect of speech that is sometimes an issue for hearing impaired children. Children with hearing impairment are often not able to monitor their own voices effectively and may speak too quietly or loudly. They may also have to be made aware of breath control when talking.

 

 

5.2   Pre-requisites of literacy and impact of deafness

 

 

Early childhood (birth to 8 years) is a critical period of development and early literacy and early numeracy are two important skill areas that develop during this period. Literacy and numeracy development begins in the first three years of life and is closely linked with daily communications, actions, thoughts and drawings of young children. Parents and the home learning environment and interactions of young children with literacy materials as books, paper, and crayons are the building blocks for the development of language, reading, writing and numeracy.

Young children are active, energetic, curious and interested in people, objects and events around them. They actively seek to make meaning of their experiences and their capacities continuously evolve. Children learn by doing and actively use their sensory capacities to understand the world around them. They discover and construct knowledge through the activities they are involved in. To enable children to understand concepts and develop their abilities, adults need to provide them opportunities to explore their environment, manipulate objects, engage in experimentation and ask questions and search for answers. These hands-on experiences help them understand how things work and in this way each child re-constructs his/her own understanding of the world.

Definition of Literacy and Numeracy

UNESCO defines literacy as the ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate, compute and use printed materials associated with varying contexts. (Education for All; Global Monitoring Report, UNESCO, 2006). Literacy is more than the ability to read and write. It involves the knowledge, skills and abilities the competencies that enable individuals to think critically, communicate effectively, deal with change and solve problems in a variety of contexts to achieve their personal goals, develop their knowledge and potential, and participate fully in society.

Numeracy encompasses the ability to use mathematical understanding and skills to solve problems and meet the demands of day-to-day living in complex social settings. To have this ability, a young person needs to be able to think and communicate quantitatively, to make sense of data, to have a spatial awareness, to understand patterns and sequences, and to recognise situations where mathematical reasoning can be applied to solve problems.

Early literacy and numeracy skills are not only foundational for learning but are correlated with greater quality of life, personal well-being, national stability, prosperity and are critical for educational outcomes in later years. Strong literacy and numeracy helps children to learn, experiment, reason and create, to be active and informed citizens, and to contribute socially, culturally and economically. Lack of learning opportunities during the early stages of acquiring literacy and numeracy impede children s academic progress and motivation, resulting in further lack of achievement.

Pre-Reading Skills

Although all children develop at their own pace, there are reading readiness skills that children commonly develop based on their age. Knowing what to look for not only helps you follow their development, it can alert you to any reading skills that may need extra attention.

      Oral Language: Oral Language includes the ability to understand spoken language and speak clearly to communicate with others. Developing your child s oral language skills increases his or her vocabulary and speaking skills, contributes to comprehension and enjoyment of reading, helps your child relate stories in books to his or her own experiences and builds listening and attention skills for school.

      Letter Knowledge: Letter knowledge includes recognition and naming of letter names and letter sounds, along with a general understanding of how print and pictures are processed differently. Learning letters is challenging for young children they need to learn, over time, to look at letters and listen to letter sounds differently and very carefully.

      Phonological Awareness: Phonological awareness is a specialized type of listening skill that is necessary for children to learn to read. Being able to identify and play with these word parts is essential for future success with phonics. Starting around age 3 or 4, your child will begin to show increasing skill at playing with words by changing sounds or syllables.

      Beginning Writing: Beginning writing includes fine motor skills and hand-eye coordination for controlling writing tools, understanding that we can show our thoughts through drawing and writing, and writing letters that represent sounds in words. Learning to read and write are interrelated skills that develop in stages.

Pre-writing Skills

Pre-writing skills are the fundamental skills children need to develop before they are able to write. These skills contribute to the child s ability to hold and use a pencil, and the ability to draw, write, copy, and colour. A major component of pre-writing skills are the pre-writing shapes. These are the pencil strokes that most letters, numbers and early drawings are comprised of. They are typically mastered in sequential order, and to an age specific level. These strokes include the following strokes: |, , O, +, /, square, \, X, and Δ.

Pre-writing skills are essential for the child to be able to develop the ability to hold and move a pencil fluently and effectively and therefore produce legible writing. When these skills are underdeveloped it can lead to frustration and resistance due to the child not being able to produce legible writing or to keep up in class due to fatigue. This can then result in poor self esteem and academic performance.

 

The pre-requisites of literacy and the impact of deafness are intertwined, as literacy development typically depends on a range of cognitive, social, and environmental factors. Here's an overview of the key pre-requisites and how deafness might affect each:

Pre-requisites of Literacy:

1.     Phonemic Awareness:

o   This refers to the ability to hear, identify, and manipulate individual sounds (phonemes) in spoken words. It is crucial for developing reading and writing skills.

o   Impact of Deafness: Deaf individuals may struggle with phonemic awareness, especially in relation to hearing sounds. This affects their ability to link sounds to letters when learning to read and write in a spoken language.

2.     Vocabulary Development:

o   A rich vocabulary is critical for understanding written texts. Children typically build vocabulary through interaction with spoken language.

o   Impact of Deafness: Deaf children, especially those who are not exposed to sign language early, may have delayed vocabulary development. This can make it difficult for them to comprehend written words and sentences later on.

3.     Reading Comprehension:

o   Understanding the meaning of the text is a fundamental part of literacy. Comprehension depends on decoding (recognizing words) and prior knowledge.

o   Impact of Deafness: Deaf children may experience delays in language acquisition and often lack exposure to rich vocabulary, affecting their comprehension skills. If they rely on written English (a spoken language) rather than sign language, the gap between comprehension and literacy skills can grow.

4.     Writing Skills:

o   Writing involves forming letters, spelling, and using grammar to express thoughts. Literacy development includes learning how to put words and ideas into written form.

o   Impact of Deafness: Without early exposure to language (spoken or sign), deaf individuals might find it difficult to develop strong writing skills. Writing often relies on a foundation of language skills, and delayed language exposure can hinder this process.

5.     Social Interaction and Communication:

o   Social interactions help develop communication skills, which are essential for both literacy and learning. Interaction with caregivers, peers, and educators in early childhood fosters language development.

o   Impact of Deafness: If a child is not exposed to a fully accessible language (like sign language) from a young age, their social interactions may be limited, affecting both their communication skills and overall literacy development.

The Impact of Deafness on Literacy:

1.     Delayed Language Acquisition:

o   Without early access to a natural language, whether it s spoken or signed, deaf children may experience significant delays in language acquisition. This delay can directly affect their ability to read and write, as language is the foundation for these skills.

2.     Difficulty with Phonics and Phonemic Awareness:

o   Since phonics is based on understanding the relationship between sounds and letters, deaf individuals, particularly those who rely on sign language, may not be able to fully engage with this aspect of literacy. As a result, their ability to decode words may be impaired.

3.     Limited Vocabulary Exposure:

o   Deaf children may not have as much exposure to spoken language in everyday interactions, which can result in a smaller vocabulary. If a deaf child learns to read and write in a spoken language, they may have to work harder to recognize and understand words.

4.     Reading Comprehension Challenges:

o   Deaf students often struggle with reading comprehension because they may not have a solid foundation in the language used in the text. For example, English texts may present challenges because English word structure and grammar are quite different from sign language.

5.     Reduced Access to Speech-Based Learning Methods:

o   Many traditional literacy teaching methods are speech-based, such as phonics instruction, auditory discrimination activities, or learning to spell by hearing sounds. Deaf children who do not have access to sound-based information may need alternative, visual or tactile-based methods to learn literacy.

6.     Sign Language as a Key Support:

o   Deaf children who have early access to sign language (such as American Sign Language or British Sign Language) tend to develop better literacy skills. Sign language serves as a natural language and helps build cognitive and linguistic abilities that are transferable to reading and writing.

7.     Cultural and Educational Impacts:

o   Deaf children educated in environments where they are not provided with sign language or other accessible modes of communication (like captioning) often experience isolation, which may hinder both their social and academic development. A lack of exposure to a supportive deaf community can also impact their motivation and sense of identity in relation to literacy.

Deafness can significantly impact literacy development, particularly if early access to language is limited or if the educational system does not accommodate the child s needs (e.g., through sign language, visual aids, or specialized literacy programs). Early language exposure whether in sign or spoken form is a key factor in helping deaf children develop literacy skills.

 

5.3   Importance and development of foundational literacy & numeracy

 

The early years of a child s life are crucial for laying the foundation for future learning and development. Recognizing this, the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 emphasizes the importance of Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN). These skills, encompassing basic reading, writing, and arithmetic, are essential for every child s educational journey and lifelong success. 

In India, the challenge of ensuring that all children achieve foundational literacy and numeracy by the end of Grade 3 has been addressed through comprehensive initiatives like the NIPUN Bharat Mission. This mission aims to provide universal access to quality early childhood education and ensure that foundational skills are firmly established.

FLN in NEP 2020

Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN) refers to basic skills in reading, writing, and mathematics. Foundational literacy encompasses the ability to understand written texts, express thoughts coherently in writing, and critically analyze information. Foundational numeracy involves proficiency in numerical concepts, mathematical operations, and the capability to apply them to real-life situations.

FLN Development Goals

The FLN development goals are designed to establish a strong foundation for further learning and personal development. These goals serve as guiding principles for teachers, curriculum designers, and policymakers to ensure students receive the necessary support and instruction to achieve these fundamental milestones. Common FLN development goals include:

• Reading Comprehension: Developing the ability to understand written texts, including comprehension of main ideas, vocabulary, details, and context.
• Writing Skills: Acquiring skills to logically express thoughts and ideas in writing, covering grammar, punctuation, spelling, and organization.
• Phonics and Phonemic Awareness: Understanding the relationship between letters and sounds, developing the capacity to decode words, and recognizing phonetic patterns.
• Vocabulary Expansion: Building an extensive and varied vocabulary to improve reading comprehension and communication skills.
• Critical Thinking and Analysis: Developing the ability to analyze texts, assess information, and think critically to form reasoned opinions.

 Importance of FLN

Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN) is essential for every child s educational journey and overall development. Here s why FLN holds such critical importance:

Building a Strong Educational Foundation

FLN forms the foundation for lifelong learning, particularly during the critical early years (0-8), which shape a child s future development and educational success, strongly influencing their long-term personal and economic well-being.

Promoting Cognitive and Socio-Emotional Development

FLN enhances cognitive development, critical thinking, and problem-solving by building strong foundational skills in reading, writing, arithmetic, and numerical understanding. These skills also boost socio-emotional development, improving communication, empathy, and self-confidence.

Ensuring Lifelong Learning and Economic Empowerment

Strong FLN skills are essential for lifelong learning, economic empowerment, academic success, and personal growth, crucial for navigating modern life, accessing information, making informed decisions, and improving job opportunities, income, and quality of life.

Addressing the Learning Crisis

The NEP 2020 underscores India s learning crisis, where approximately 50 million children lack basic literacy and numeracy skills. Prioritizing FLN is essential to addressing this crisis and ensuring that educational reforms are impactful, enabling students to benefit fully from the comprehensive curriculum.

Empowering Teachers and Communities

Efforts to enhance FLN include equipping teachers with necessary skills and resources, such as professional development programs, quality teaching materials, and ongoing support. Engaging parents and communities further enriches the educational environment, fostering a holistic approach to children s learning.

 

Development of Foundational Literacy and Numeracy

The development of foundational literacy and numeracy begins early in life and is influenced by multiple factors, including cognitive development, environmental exposure, and social interactions. Here's how these skills develop:

1. Early Childhood Stage (0-5 Years)

• Language Exposure: Early exposure to spoken language is vital. Children learn through interactions with caregivers, hearing stories, and being introduced to new words and concepts.
• Pre-literacy Skills: During this stage, children develop skills like understanding the concept of print, recognizing letters, and understanding that words convey meaning. They also learn to differentiate sounds (phonemic awareness), which is critical for learning to read.
• Pre-numeracy Skills: Children begin to grasp basic numerical concepts, such as counting objects, understanding quantities (more/less), and recognizing shapes and patterns.
• Parental Involvement: Reading aloud, engaging in conversations, and playing number-based games lay a foundation for literacy and numeracy.

2. Early Primary/Elementary Years (5-9 Years)

• Reading and Writing: In this stage, children focus on decoding words, recognizing sight words, and building fluency. They also start developing writing skills, like forming letters, spelling, and simple sentence construction.
• Numeracy Skills: Children learn more advanced number concepts, like addition, subtraction, and basic multiplication. They also begin to grasp the concept of time, measurement, and money.
• Language and Math Integration: Classroom activities may integrate both literacy and numeracy, like reading math word problems or writing out math steps.

3. Later Primary/Secondary Years (10+ Years)

• Reading Comprehension: Students progress in their ability to understand and analyze more complex texts, including reading for specific information, interpreting meaning, and making inferences.
• Advanced Numeracy Skills: The scope of numeracy expands to more complex mathematical concepts like multiplication, division, fractions, percentages, and basic algebra.
• Problem-Solving: Students begin to engage in critical thinking and problem-solving, both in literacy (e.g., analyzing texts) and numeracy (e.g., solving multi-step math problems).

Foundational literacy and numeracy are the bedrock of academic success and personal development. These skills shape an individual's ability to engage with the world around them, make informed decisions, and participate in social, economic, and civic life. Developing strong literacy and numeracy skills from an early age lays the foundation for lifelong learning and achievement, making it essential for children to receive the appropriate exposure, support, and opportunities to nurture these skills.

The development of foundational literacy and numeracy in hearing-impaired children requires specific adaptations and strategies to ensure they acquire these essential skills. Since hearing-impaired children face challenges in accessing spoken language, the development of literacy and numeracy needs to be tailored to their individual needs, often through visual, tactile, and sign language-based approaches.

Here s an overview of the development of foundational literacy and numeracy in hearing-impaired children and the strategies to support their growth in these areas:

Development of Literacy Skills

• Phonological Awareness and Phonemic Awareness: These skills are foundational for reading and writing. However, for hearing-impaired children, phonological awareness can be more challenging since they might not have clear access to auditory sounds.
• Visual Phonics: One strategy for developing phonemic awareness in hearing-impaired children is visual phonics. This method involves the use of hand signals, visual cues, and pictures to represent sounds and letter combinations, helping children recognize phonemes in a way that does not rely solely on hearing.
• Written Language and Visual Cues: Teachers and caregivers can use written language (e.g., books, labels, and visual aids) alongside sign language to build vocabulary and understanding of words. For instance, illustrating words with pictures can strengthen understanding of the meaning of a word and how it connects to real-world objects or concepts.
• Reading Comprehension: For hearing-impaired children, reading comprehension relies heavily on language exposure and understanding of the text's context. Key strategies include:
• Visual Storytelling: Using visual aids such as storyboards, picture books, and videos with captions or sign language interpretation helps enhance reading comprehension.
• Contextual Clues: Encouraging children to use visual and contextual cues (e.g., pictures, gestures, and body language) to support their understanding of written text is important for literacy development.
• Sign Language and Reading: Deaf children can use sign language to understand the meaning of complex concepts and vocabulary before encountering them in written form. This supports both comprehension and vocabulary building.
• Writing Skills: Writing skills in hearing-impaired children can develop through the use of visual writing aids (e.g., picture-based prompts) and encouragement of handwriting or typing. It's important to support them in recognizing the connection between signs and written words.
• Spelling and Grammar: A strong understanding of sign language grammar can aid in translating concepts into written language. Educators can work on building connections between the syntax of sign language and the syntax of written language to ensure grammatical accuracy.

Development of Numeracy Skills

• Numerical Concepts and Counting: Hearing-impaired children typically learn numerical concepts through visual cues and concrete experiences. Teachers can use objects, visuals, and manipulatives to help children understand counting, addition, and subtraction.
• Use of Visual Aids: Visual number charts, flashcards, and concrete counting objects (e.g., blocks or beads) are effective tools in building a foundational understanding of numbers and mathematical operations.
• Sign Language for Numbers: Sign language has its own set of number signs, and these can help children understand the concept of numbers and mathematical relationships.
• Math in Context: Real-life contexts (such as counting items while grocery shopping or measuring ingredients for cooking) offer practical opportunities for applying numeracy skills.
• Patterns and Mathematical Logic: Children can also learn to identify patterns (e.g., shapes, sequences, or numbers) using visual cues and manipulatives. Pattern recognition is an essential skill in both literacy and numeracy.
• Hands-on Learning: Activities like sorting, categorizing, and measuring objects visually or tactilely are key for developing logical thinking and problem-solving skills in mathematics.
• Word Problems and Visual Representations: For hearing-impaired children, math word problems may be challenging because they rely on language comprehension. To address this, visual representations (like diagrams, charts, or models) can be used to explain mathematical problems, helping children connect abstract concepts to concrete images.
• Math Through Sign Language: Teachers can teach math vocabulary and concepts using sign language, ensuring that the child fully understands the mathematical operations before attempting to apply them in written or spoken forms.

The development of foundational literacy and numeracy in hearing-impaired children requires a holistic approach that takes into account the unique challenges they face in accessing spoken language. Early exposure to sign language and visual learning methods is crucial for providing a solid foundation in literacy and numeracy. By integrating sign language, visual aids, real-life experiences, and peer support, hearing-impaired children can develop essential cognitive, academic, and life skills that will help them thrive in both educational and social contexts.

 

5.4   Reading; stages, types and activities for developing and scaffolding

 

Literacy is not something that just happens. One does not wake up literate nor does one become literate in the same way that one learns to walk. It is not intuited from the environment nor is it simply a matter of physical maturation. Literacy learning requires instruction and practice,  and this learning occurs across discrete stages.

The development of reading skills typically progresses through five main stages. These stages represent the gradual acquisition of essential skills needed for effective reading, starting from pre-reading abilities in early childhood to full reading proficiency in later years. Here s an overview of the 5 stages of reading development:

1. Pre-Reading Stage (Emergent Literacy)

• Age: 0-5 years
• Key Characteristics:
• Pre-literacy skills are developed through exposure to print, books, and oral language. Children are learning the basics of communication before they can read on their own.
• Print Awareness: Children understand that print carries meaning, that books have a beginning and end, and that text is read from left to right.
• Phonological Awareness: Awareness of sounds, syllables, and rhymes in spoken language, a key skill for reading later on.
• Letter Knowledge: Children start to recognize letters of the alphabet, and some may start to associate letters with their sounds.
• Vocabulary Development: Listening to stories, singing songs, and conversing with adults builds vocabulary and language skills.

2. Early Reading Stage (Beginning Reading)

• Age: 5-7 years
• Key Characteristics:
• Phonics: Children begin to understand the relationship between letters and sounds (e.g., "c" makes the /k/ sound). They start to decode simple words and phrases.
• Word Recognition: Recognition of common sight words (e.g., "the," "cat," "and") that don t follow standard phonetic rules.
• Simple Sentences: Children begin to read short, simple sentences and stories. They may sound out unfamiliar words and rely on illustrations for context.
• Development of Fluency: Reading becomes more fluid as children learn to read familiar words with more confidence.

3. Transitional Reading Stage (Fluent Reading)

• Age: 7-9 years
• Key Characteristics:
• Fluency: Children read more smoothly, with improved speed and accuracy, and are able to decode words quickly.
• Comprehension: They understand the basic meaning of the text, identify the main idea, and begin to make inferences about the text.
• Use of Context Clues: Children use pictures, surrounding words, and their prior knowledge to figure out the meaning of unknown words.
• Expanded Vocabulary: As children read more challenging books, their vocabulary continues to grow, and they can recognize a wider range of words.

4. Intermediate Reading Stage (Complex Texts)

• Age: 9-11 years
• Key Characteristics:
• Advanced Comprehension: Children understand more complex texts, including stories with multiple characters, settings, and events. They can summarize key points and analyze story structure.
• Reading for Information: Children begin to read for more than just enjoyment; they read to gather information, answer questions, and solve problems.
• Critical Thinking: Children can start analyzing and evaluating information from texts, recognizing the author s purpose, biases, and the difference between fact and opinion.
• Increased Vocabulary: They encounter more challenging words and use strategies such as root words, prefixes, and suffixes to decode unfamiliar words.

5. Advanced Reading Stage (Proficient Reading)

• Age: 11+ years (Middle school and beyond)
• Key Characteristics:
• Fluent, Independent Reading: Students can read a wide variety of texts, including novels, academic material, and complex literature, with ease and understanding.
• Critical and Analytical Thinking: They can evaluate, interpret, and analyze texts, identifying themes, literary devices, and nuances in meaning.
• Synthesis: Students can integrate information from different texts and sources to form conclusions or solve problems.
• Academic and Professional Reading: Reading is now a tool for learning in academic, professional, and personal contexts, and students can approach texts with a critical, evaluative mindset.

The 5 stages of reading development provide a framework for understanding how children grow into proficient readers. From emergent literacy in the early years to the advanced reading skills needed in later school years, each stage builds upon the skills acquired in the previous one. It is essential for educators and caregivers to provide appropriate support and resources at each stage, allowing children to progress at their own pace while fostering a love for reading.

 

The 4 Types of Reading Techniques

There are 4 types of reading techniques that will assist you with your studies and help improve your information retention, leading to higher grades. 

1. Skim Reading

Skim reading, often referred to as skimming, is a rapid reading technique used to gain an overall impression of the text without delving into every detail. When skimming, readers glance through the content, paying attention to headings, subheadings, bolded/italicised text, and any visuals. This technique is particularly useful when:

• Previewing material: it s useful to skim through a text before undertaking an in-depth reading session. This will allow you to understand the main ideas and structure of the text.
• Determining relevance: as you skim through a section of text, you ll be able to determine which information is relevant and potentially important. Therefore, you ll understand which areas to focus on and work through thoroughly. 
• Refreshing: it can be useful to skim through text and sections before an exam. This ll refresh you on the information you have already studied and help you remember the main points. 

Though skimming aids in quickly grasping the gist of a text, it may lead to missing finer points and nuances. As such, it's not recommended for comprehensive understanding or when dealing with complex subjects. Rather, it s seen as the first step when approaching a topic and studying.

2. Scan Reading

Scan reading or scanning, is another rapid reading technique that focuses on locating specific information within a text. Unlike skimming, where readers glance over the entire content, scanning involves a more targeted approach. Readers actively look for keywords, dates, names, or specific data, effectively scanning the text for the required information. Scanning is useful in various scenarios:

• Finding information: scanning can be used to find a particular piece of information in an index, table of contents, or glossary. 
• Specific data: information sources such as articles or reports can be long and it ll, therefore, take a lot of time to locate information if you read through each article properly. Scanning allows you to quickly find specific data in long pieces of text.
• Locating answers: during an exam or while completing an assignment, scanning can help you quickly and easily locate answers hidden within the provided text. 

Scanning helps readers save time and quickly pinpoint relevant information. However, it may not offer a profound understanding of the context or broader concepts present in the text.

3. Active and Intensive Reading

Active, or intensive reading, is a comprehensive and engaging reading technique that encourages readers to actively interact with the text. Instead of passively absorbing information, active reading involves asking questions, making connections, and taking notes. This technique is ideal for:

• studying academic material and complex subjects in depth
• enhancing your comprehension and retention of information
• encouraging critical thinking and analysis of the content.

Active reading can be achieved through various strategies, such as annotating the text, highlighting key points, jotting down questions, or summarising the material in your own words. By actively participating in the reading process, readers can develop a deeper understanding and long-lasting knowledge.

4. Analytical Reading

Analytical reading is a reading technique that requires you to analyse the text you are interacting with. Therefore, this technique goes beyond comprehension and moves towards evaluating and critiquing the text. Researchers, academics, and those seeking a thorough understanding of complex concepts often use this approach.

Analytical reading involves:

• Identification: readers should identify the author's arguments, claims, and supporting evidence.
• Assessment: the text should be assessed to determine the credibility and reliability of the information presented.
• Recognition: readers should be able to recognise underlying assumptions and potential biases.
• Comparison: lastly, the text should be compared to other relevant sources to develop a comprehensive perspective.

Analytical reading is time-consuming but crucial for developing a critical mindset and forming well-founded opinions. This approach is particularly valuable when dealing with academic papers, news articles, and persuasive texts. Therefore, this reading technique is most often used at the university level. 

Other types of Reading

1.     Shared/Interactive Reading

o   What It Is: Involves an adult (teacher, parent) reading aloud to the child while engaging them in conversation about the story.

o   When It s Used: Primarily in early literacy stages (emergent and beginning reading).

o   Purpose: To build vocabulary, comprehension, and an understanding of how stories are structured.

o   Example: Reading a picture book with the child and asking questions like, "What do you think will happen next?" or "How does the character feel?"

2.     Independent Reading

o   What It Is: Reading done by the child on their own, without assistance.

o   When It s Used: As children become more proficient, independent reading allows them to practice and strengthen their reading skills.

o   Purpose: To build fluency, confidence, and love for reading.

o   Example: The child reading a book at their own level, choosing books of personal interest.

3.     Guided Reading

o   What It Is: A small-group reading activity where a teacher or adult guides children through a text, providing support and instruction as needed.

o   When It s Used: During the transitional and fluent reading stages.

o   Purpose: To help children tackle new words, understand text structure, and improve comprehension.

o   Example: A teacher works with a group of students reading the same book, prompting them to decode unfamiliar words and asking them comprehension questions.

4.     Read-Aloud

o   What It Is: The teacher or adult reads the text aloud to the child or group of children, often with expression and emphasis.

o   When It s Used: For all stages, but especially beneficial in the early stages.

o   Purpose: To model fluent reading, expose children to rich vocabulary, and improve listening comprehension.

o   Example: A teacher reading a story aloud to the class, pausing to explain new vocabulary or concepts.

5.     Silent Reading

o   What It Is: Reading done by an individual without vocalizing the text.

o   When It s Used: As children advance in their reading skills, silent reading becomes a common practice.

o   Purpose: To improve reading fluency and comprehension while fostering concentration.

o   Example: A child reading a chapter of a book quietly to themselves, reflecting on the content and possibly making notes.

6.     Close Reading

o   What It Is: A careful and purposeful rereading of a short passage to analyze its meaning, structure, and literary devices.

o   When It s Used: Primarily in proficient readers and higher levels of education.

o   Purpose: To examine text deeply, understanding nuances and multiple layers of meaning.

o   Example: Rereading a passage and discussing the author's use of symbolism, tone, and word choice.

Activities for Developing Reading in Hearing impaired students and Scaffolding

Scaffolding refers to providing support and guidance to help children accomplish tasks they cannot yet do independently, with the goal of gradually reducing that support as the child s skills improve. In the context of reading development, scaffolding involves providing tools, strategies, and activities that help children build foundational skills in reading and comprehension.

Developing reading skills in hearing-impaired children requires activities that support both language development and visual learning. Since hearing-impaired children may not have access to auditory cues (like phonics and speech sounds), the activities need to focus on building visual and motor skills, vocabulary, comprehension, and literacy through visual and kinesthetic means. Here are some effective activities for developing reading skills in hearing-impaired children, with a focus on scaffolding and strategies to support their needs.

1. Visual Phonics and Letter-Sound Correspondence

While hearing-impaired children may not be able to hear sounds, they can learn to associate visual phonics (the written form of sounds) with letters.

Activities:

• Visual Phonics (Cued Speech):
• Activity: Use a system of hand cues or visual phonics (which visually represents sounds) alongside letters. For each letter sound, use a corresponding hand cue to reinforce the visual form of speech.
• Scaffolding: Start with visual cues for the simplest consonants and vowels. Gradually expand to more complex combinations and words.
• Flashcards with Pictures:
• Activity: Show flashcards with letters and corresponding pictures that represent the letter s sound (e.g., A with a picture of an apple).
• Scaffolding: Provide the child with the opportunity to look at the picture and letter, and encourage them to make associations. Once they master simple letters, move to more complex ones.

2. Sight Word Recognition (Visual Learning)

Since hearing-impaired children may not use phonics in the traditional sense, sight word recognition can help them become fluent readers.

Activities:

• Sight Word Flashcards:
• Activity: Create flashcards for high-frequency words (e.g., "the," "is," "in") and pair them with images.
• Scaffolding: Introduce a small group of sight words and repeat the activity regularly. Encourage the child to recognize these words in context during reading exercises.
• Word Walls:
• Activity: Create a word wall with large, colorful words and matching images. Place it in the child's environment to reinforce word recognition.
• Scaffolding: Start with a few words and add more as the child becomes familiar with the existing ones. Encourage the child to point to words they recognize or use them in simple sentences.

3. Reading Aloud with Sign Language and Visual Cues

Using sign language can support reading development by reinforcing visual and kinesthetic learning, providing a strong foundation for understanding written language.

Activities:

• Sign Language Storytelling:
• Activity: Read a story aloud while simultaneously using sign language to translate the text. Encourage the child to watch both the written words and the signed language to make connections between them.
• Scaffolding: Begin with simple stories and slowly introduce more complex texts. Encourage the child to repeat the signs and words to improve fluency.
• Shared Reading with Signs:
• Activity: Read books together and incorporate sign language for key vocabulary or concepts. Use books that have both text and pictures to enhance visual context.
• Scaffolding: Initially, sign along with the child as you read. Over time, encourage the child to use their own signs or point to the words while reading.

4. Picture Walks and Story Prediction

Before reading a text, use pictures to help the child predict and comprehend the story. This will allow them to understand context and structure before engaging with the written text.

Activities:

• Picture Walks:
• Activity: Go through the pictures in a book and discuss what the child thinks is happening. This can also be done with books that have large, clear illustrations.
• Scaffolding: Guide the child with questions like What do you see? or What might happen next? as they look at the pictures, helping them connect the visuals to the text when you begin reading.
• Story Prediction:
• Activity: Based on the pictures, ask the child to predict what might happen next in the story. This encourages thinking beyond just reading the text.
• Scaffolding: Start with simple stories and provide hints or clues from the pictures. Over time, allow the child to make more independent predictions.

5. Interactive Reading and Story Retelling

Interactive reading with hands-on engagement can help reinforce comprehension and story structure.

Activities:

• Story Retelling with Props or Puppets:
• Activity: After reading a story, use puppets, toys, or props to help the child retell the story in their own words. The child can act out the story using the props to reinforce comprehension.
• Scaffolding: Initially, guide the child by using the props to act out the main parts of the story. Gradually, encourage the child to retell the story independently while using the props.
• Sequencing Activities:
• Activity: After reading a short story, give the child a set of pictures or events from the story and ask them to arrange them in the correct order.
• Scaffolding: Help the child arrange the pictures at first and discuss the storyline. Gradually reduce support as the child becomes more comfortable with the sequencing task.

6. Word Building and Letter Formation

Hands-on activities that promote letter recognition and writing are essential for hearing-impaired children, as they provide opportunities for fine motor development and literacy building.

Activities:

• Magnetic Letters or Letter Blocks:
• Activity: Use magnetic letters or letter blocks to help the child form words. Encourage the child to build simple words they are learning (e.g., cat, dog, fish ).
• Scaffolding: Start by creating words together and providing verbal and visual cues. Gradually allow the child to build words independently as they become more confident.
• Tracing Letters and Words:
• Activity: Have the child trace large letters and words using their fingers or a writing utensil. This helps reinforce letter shapes and word formation.
• Scaffolding: Provide templates or guides for tracing. Initially, you may need to guide their hand, but encourage them to trace independently as their skills improve.

7. Read-Aloud with Captioning/Visual Text Support

For children who are deaf or hard of hearing, captioned video books or e-books with visual text can help improve reading comprehension and fluency.

Activities:

• Captioned Story Videos:
• Activity: Show a video version of a book with captions or subtitles while reading aloud. This can help the child connect spoken language with written text.
• Scaffolding: Initially, read along with the captions and discuss the content. Gradually allow the child to read the captions and connect them to the visuals.
• E-books with Visual Text Support:
• Activity: Use digital books or e-books that provide highlighted text or visual cues as the story progresses. Some e-books read the story aloud while highlighting words on the screen.
• Scaffolding: Begin with books that are interactive and have visual support. Encourage the child to follow along with the highlighted text.

8. Vocabulary Building with Visual Aids

Since hearing-impaired children rely on visual cues, it's essential to use pictures, objects, and real-life experiences to enhance vocabulary development.

Activities:

• Vocabulary Picture Cards:
• Activity: Use flashcards with pictures and words to introduce new vocabulary. Make sure the pictures clearly represent the meaning of the word.
• Scaffolding: Start with common, everyday objects and words, then gradually increase the complexity of the vocabulary. Encourage the child to use the new words in sentences.
• Real-Life Context Vocabulary:
• Activity: Introduce vocabulary through real-life experiences, such as visiting the zoo, going grocery shopping, or cooking together. Use signs and pictures to reinforce new words.
• Scaffolding: During these activities, model the use of new vocabulary and encourage the child to label objects and actions. Gradually reduce support as the child becomes more familiar with the words.

When teaching reading to hearing-impaired children, it's important to use visual, kinesthetic, and tactile strategies. The activities above emphasize the importance of visual cues, sign language, and interactive, hands-on approaches that support language development and comprehension. Scaffolding is key: start with support, and gradually reduce it as the child becomes more independent. By integrating these strategies into daily routines and reading practices, hearing-impaired children can develop strong reading skills.

 

5.5   Writing; stages, types and activities for developing and scaffolding

 

he writing process is the roadmap that writers follow to express their ideas coherently. From the initial spark of inspiration to the final polished edit, each step is a move closer to a more developed piece of work.

The stages of writing development are crucial to understanding how children progress in their ability to express themselves through written language. These stages are typically observed in children as they develop skills in spelling, grammar, sentence structure, and overall composition. Below are the five main stages of writing development:

1. Prewriting Stage (Scribbling/Preliterate Writing)

• Characteristics: This is the earliest stage, typically occurring in toddlers or preschoolers before they can form letters or words. Children engage in scribbling or drawing, and these early marks are their first attempts at communication through writing.
• Key Features:
• Scribbling or random marks on paper.
• Drawing pictures to express ideas.
• Pretend writing, where children may "write" in patterns or shapes that resemble letters but do not represent real words.
• No understanding of letter formation or spelling rules.
• Goal: The goal at this stage is to help children understand that writing can be a way to convey thoughts and ideas. Encouraging them to draw and label pictures is a good start.

2. Emergent Writing Stage (Invented Spelling)

• Characteristics: At this stage, children begin to experiment with letters, sounds, and words. They start to make connections between spoken language and written language, even though their spelling may be unconventional.
• Key Features:
• Use of invented or phonetic spelling (e.g., writing "kat" for "cat").
• Writing of some familiar letters or words.
• Attempting to form letters, though they may not be fully accurate.
• Limited punctuation, and minimal or no capitalization.
• Goal: The goal is to help children develop awareness of letter-sound correspondence and to encourage their exploration of how written words represent sounds and ideas.

3. Transitional Writing Stage (Developing Spelling and Sentence Structure)

• Characteristics: Children at this stage begin to use more conventional spelling and structure in their writing. They start to develop a better understanding of phonetic spelling rules, though errors may still occur.
• Key Features:
• More accurate spelling, but still some phonetic or invented spelling.
• Simple sentences with the beginnings of punctuation and capitalization.
• Understanding of basic sentence structure (subject + verb + object).
• Increased use of sight words.
• Greater focus on writing for different purposes, such as telling a story or making lists.
• Goal: To build on their knowledge of sentence structure and spelling patterns. Encouraging writing simple stories or personal narratives can be helpful at this stage.

4. Conventional Writing Stage (Correct Spelling and Sentence Structure)

• Characteristics: In this stage, children write with greater accuracy and begin to use standard spelling, punctuation, and grammar. Their writing becomes more coherent and organized, and they are able to convey their ideas more clearly.
• Key Features:
• Correct spelling of many words, though occasional errors might still occur.
• Use of punctuation (periods, question marks, commas) and capitalization in appropriate places.
• More complex sentence structures (e.g., compound and complex sentences).
• Writing that is more organized, with an introduction, body, and conclusion in some cases.
• Greater use of descriptive language and variety in sentence structure.
• Goal: To encourage children to refine their writing by focusing on content, organization, and language use. At this stage, children are ready to work on revising their writing for clarity and detail.

5. Proficient Writing Stage (Advanced Writing Skills)

• Characteristics: At this stage, children are able to write with clarity, structure, and depth. They are capable of expressing complex ideas and opinions and can revise and edit their work for improvement.
• Key Features:
• Well-organized writing with strong cohesion and flow.
• Appropriate use of punctuation, grammar, and spelling with very few errors.
• Use of more advanced sentence structures and varied vocabulary.
• Ability to write for different purposes (e.g., storytelling, expository writing, persuasive writing).
• Critical thinking and ability to incorporate feedback for revision.
• Goal: To refine writing by focusing on voice, style, and more sophisticated writing techniques. Children can engage in more complex tasks like research writing, essays, and detailed narratives.

Summary of Stages

1.     Prewriting: Scribbling, drawing, and pretending to write.

2.     Emergent Writing: Invented spelling, letter-sound correspondence.

3.     Transitional Writing: More accurate spelling, simple sentence structures.

4.     Conventional Writing: Correct spelling, punctuation, and grammar.

5.     Proficient Writing: Advanced writing skills, clear organization, and coherence.

Understanding these stages helps educators and caregivers support children at the appropriate level of writing development. Activities such as journaling, storytelling, word games, and writing prompts can help children progress through these stages.

The stages of writing process:

1 - Prewriting

This is the initial phase where the writer generates ideas and plans the structure of the piece. It involves brainstorming, outlining, and organizing thoughts. Things like writing workshops can help engage students in this kind of activity. Prewriting is the foundation for the writing process, helping writers clarify their purpose, audience, and main ideas.

Here you could even use graphic organizers to help plan and map out thoughts and ideas ready for the next step!

2 - Drafting

In this step, the writer puts pen to paper or fingers to keyboard and begins to compose the first draft. The focus is on getting ideas down without worrying too much about perfection. The goal is to create a rough version of the content, building upon the ideas developed during the prewriting stage.

3 - Revising

After completing the draft, the writer steps back to review and revise the content. This involves making structural changes, refining the organization, clarifying ideas, and improving the overall flow. Revising is crucial for enhancing the coherence and effectiveness of the writing.

4 - Editing

Editing is a detailed review focused on correcting grammar, punctuation, spelling, and other mechanical aspects of the writing. It addresses issues at the sentence and word level, ensuring that the language is clear, precise, and error-free. Editing enhances the readability and professionalism of the written piece.

5 - Publishing

The final step involves preparing the written work for its intended audience. This could include formatting, proofreading, and making any final adjustments. Publishing is about presenting the polished and refined piece to the world, whether it's through traditional print, online platforms, or other means.

 

Activities for Developing Writing in Hearing impaired students and Scaffolding

Supporting writing development in hearing-impaired students requires a combination of personalized approaches, scaffolding strategies, and tools that cater to their specific learning needs. Here are some effective activities and scaffolding techniques:

1. Visual Storytelling

• Activity: Have students create stories using pictures or storyboards. This visual medium helps build narrative skills before focusing on written language.
• Scaffolding: Provide visual prompts and graphic organizers to help structure their ideas. Encourage them to use keywords or short sentences at first, gradually adding more detail as their writing improves.

2. Sign Language to Written Language Connection

• Activity: Encourage students to translate their sign language or gestures into written sentences. They can describe what they've signed or translate a story they've created in sign language into written words.
• Scaffolding: Offer sentence starters or key vocabulary related to the signed content, so they don t feel lost trying to express themselves in written form.

3. Peer Collaboration (with Hearing and Deaf Peers)

• Activity: Pair students with hearing peers or other deaf peers who can help model writing skills. The interaction can include group brainstorming or editing.
• Scaffolding: Assign roles like "scripter" and "editor" so students feel supported throughout the writing process. Provide guidance on giving constructive feedback.

4. Interactive Writing (using technology)

• Activity: Use speech-to-text software, interactive e-books, or writing apps that allow students to write and receive feedback in real time. Apps like Google Docs, for example, can facilitate collaborative writing and real-time revisions.
• Scaffolding: Ensure the technology tools include features such as spelling and grammar suggestions, word prediction, and visual cues to make writing easier.

5. Sentence Expansion Exercises

• Activity: Start with simple sentences and have students expand them by adding descriptive words, clauses, or details. For example, "The cat sleeps" can become "The black cat sleeps on the soft couch."
• Scaffolding: Use sentence frames and word banks to assist them in expanding their sentences. Gradually decrease support as their ability grows.

6. Use of Visual Vocabulary Lists

• Activity: Create vocabulary lists with corresponding images, signs, or videos, and have students use them in sentences or short paragraphs.
• Scaffolding: Provide sample sentences or paragraphs where students can insert the words from the visual vocabulary list to help them construct their own meaningful sentences.

7. Structured Journaling or Daily Writing

• Activity: Have students keep a daily journal or write short reflections on their day. These can be simple sentences or phrases, progressively getting longer.
• Scaffolding: Offer sentence prompts (e.g., Today I felt ____ because _____ ), and gradually encourage more detailed reflections as they develop writing fluency.

8. Rewriting and Editing Practice

• Activity: Provide drafts with errors and have students identify and correct them. This can include spelling, grammar, or sentence structure issues.
• Scaffolding: Focus on one type of error at a time (e.g., capitalization) and guide students through how to correct it. Provide feedback on both mechanics and content.

9. Use of Writing Frames and Graphic Organizers

• Activity: Use templates that students can fill out to guide their writing, such as first, next, then, finally frames for sequencing stories or events.
• Scaffolding: Start with more structured frames and gradually reduce the level of support as students become more confident in organizing their thoughts in writing.

10. Use of Assistive Technology

• Activity: Provide hearing-impaired students with access to speech-to-text programs, dictation software, or apps designed to support writing. Tools like Grammarly, ProWritingAid, or word processors with predictive text can be helpful.
• Scaffolding: Allow them time to explore these technologies and ensure that these tools are gradually introduced to avoid overwhelming the students.

By scaffolding learning in these ways, you can ensure that hearing-impaired students feel confident in their writing abilities, with supports gradually decreasing as their skills develop. The key is providing clear structures, visual supports, and time to practice and refine their skills.