2. 4 Play therapy - aim, scope and importance for children with developmental Disabilities, special Olympics, international and Indian scenario
Definition
of play:
As
defined in “Adapted Physical Education and Recreation” by Sherrill, play refers
to the spontaneous, pleasurable behaviours through which children interact with
their environment. In non-disabled children, play is inborn and instinctive,
and they progress through easily observable stages right from exploring and
manipulating the environment during infancy to grasping complex rules,
strategies and regulation as in competitive games, when they grow older.
Most children utilize their time outside school in unorganized or structured play activities. They are attempting to use play as a constructive activity and an outlet for excess energy. Earlier theorists proposed four major explanations of play. The first was the surplus energy theory (Schiller et al, 1875). According to this, the reservoir of energy left over after the basic needs of the body such as food are spent on play.
The second is the relaxation and recreation theory of play, proposed by philosophers Lazarus (1883) and Patrick (1916). In contrast to the first, this theory proposed that after engaging in physically and mentally exhausting work, the body is drained of energy and needs sleep. However, in order to achieve full restoration, it first needs to engage in play activities, that help one relax and release pressure.
The third is the practice or pre-exercise theory of play (Gross, 1898, 1901). The purpose of play according to this theory is to practice skills necessary for adulthood.
These theories influenced formulations of contemporary theories of play, which can be categorized under (a) Piagetian, (b) Psychoanalytical and (c) arousal theories.
Piaget focused on cognitive development and interpreted play in terms of its relation to the development of knowledge. The four major stages of development are:
1. Sensory motor stage (0-24 years of age): Children discover properties about objects around them by engaging in organized patterns of behaviours (schemes).
2. Preoperational stage (approximately 2-7 years of age): Thinking in this stage is intuitive and illogical.
3. Concrete operational: At this stage, thinking is in terms of operations, primarily at a concrete level.
4. Formal operations (12 years and above): Abstract thinking and problem solving begins here.
At different developmental stages, children engage in different qualities of play. Practice play occurs during sensory motor stage. Body movements in new born babies are reflexive, and involve no interaction with outside stimuli. Around 4-8 months, babies will discover a relationship between reflex action and outside stimuli. For eg. If a baby kicks and the milk bottle falls, she will repeat the action to see the bottle falling. As a consequence of this knowledge of cause and effect relationship, she begins to engage in more and more of such behaviours. Through trial and error, she is beginning to learn more and more about the world. At the preoperational stage, the predominant quality of play is symbolic (one thing represents something else). From here, child moves from solitary play such as pretending the chair she is sitting to be a scooter, to parallel play (preschool age). Here, she may play with the same toys sitting next to others but not interacting initially. Finally, cooperative play emerges, which is related to mastery of language, which in turn facilitates social interaction.
The third category of play which involves rules, emerges during middle and later childhood. Play becomes more competitive and abstract. It is not first about having fun but winning. Generally, it is believed that children with mental retardation also progress through same stages of development as above but at a slower rate. On observation, it is found that these children do not usually interact with toys in the same way as the non-disabled peers. Symbolic play in particular seems to be absent (Barnett et al, 1985). A similar finding has been noted in children with autism (Rutter et al, 1978, 1982). However, there are exceptions as in case of many high functioning children with Down’s syndrome. These children are excellent mimics and have been observed engaging themselves in pretend play such as miming sequences seen on television and using one set of objects as symbols for a variety of other play activities.
Organizing play activities for children with
mental retardation
To help children with mental retardation, learn how to play and enjoy playing,
a teacher needs to keep the following points in mind.
- Make sure that the activities chosen are age appropriate.
- The play environment and materials used should be conducive to specific developmental stage.
- The child must be exposed to a variety of activities – both active and passive so that he develops skills which he not only uses in a group but also when he is on his own.
- Activities should be easily accessible, realistic and suited to the child’s family environment.
- Initially, activities which lead to success must be selected. For this, one should take advantage of their abilities and develop activities which highlight their strengths, rather than their limitations.
- Opportunities must be provided for children with mental retardation to play and interact with their non-disabled peers This will provide opportunities for social stimulation. It will also help these children accept their own strengths and limitations.
Activities
Pre-school level
- For infants and very small children, use colourful, bright, sound making toys of different textures. Physically guide them to look at the objects, reach, grasp and manipulate.
Any old cardboard carton will serve as a wonderful play area for an infant. Suspend variety of objects at different heights and observe child at play. This is extremely useful in teaching children with severe/profound mental retardation to communicate. For example, when he shakes a rattle, provide food. When this process is repeated, over a period of time, he learns to relate shaking of rattle to hunger/getting food.
- Winding toys can be used to enhance visual tracking skills.
Models of vehicles (pulling and pushing type) and ball can be used to encourage interaction with others. In the classroom, organize play corners. Arrange sets of play material at each corner. Tell them `children let’s go on a bus ride. As we stop at each place, take a look around. Choose a place of your liking and play there’.
Depending on their availability, each corner can have kitchen sets, musical instruments, water play items, sand or clay, blocks and beads. Through this, you will be developing their abilities to imagine and make choices. Observation of children at play will help you assess their abilities and talents.
You can use old newspaper for a variety of play activities as given below:
- wrap it around self like a shawl.
- make caps and wear them.
- crush into balls – throw and catch.
- cut/tear and paste.
In the playground, provide a variety of material such as swings, merry-go-round, slide and see-saw. This will help develop their gross motor skills of jumping, climbing and balancing. You can make your own outdoor play equipment using used truck tyres, rope, cardboard boxes and planks, and chairs/tables of different heights. Make sure the material does not have sharp edges and is safe to handle.
While planning:
- ensure that the materials are safe, non-toxic, bright, and colourful.
- make your own toys from materials in the surroundings.
- use same toy for a variety of activities.
- use toys to enhance visual, motor, auditory, smell (olfactory) and kinesthetic skills.
- Make/use toys according to developmental level (size, colour, shape, texture and degree of complexity).
- check the child’s mental age and developmental level, before introducing the game.
- take into consideration the associated problems which may require adaptations in the activity or materials used.
Use board games such as puzzles, `snakes and ladder’ and carom to develop group cooperation skills. Before beginning – ask child to say `my turn’ by pointing to self or verbally. This helps in teaching child his name and names of his friends, waiting for turn, and cooperating. By asking two children to fit a six piece puzzle together, you will be helping them learn the concept of sharing. Think of more games where children will need to share toys and wait for turn.
Moral/sportsmanship development
While
children without disabilities generally understand simple game rules by the age
of 4, children with mental retardation lag behind in readiness for organized
games. They exhibit conceptual rigidity in playground behaviour. This is often
misinterpreted as bad sportsmanship. Generally, children from four years of age
to adolescence tend to regard game rules as sacred and absolute and are taught
that obeying rules is a part of good sportsmanship. The motivation for obeying
rules follows a definite developmental sequence. Table-1 presents stages in
moral development as proposed by Lawrence Kohlberg.
Special Olympics
Special Olympics is an international organization dedicated to empowering individuals with intellectual disabilities to become physically fit, productive and respected members of society through sports training and competition. The Special Olympics mission remains as vital today as it did when the movement was founded in 1968. Special Olympics strives to create a better world by fostering the acceptance and inclusion of all people. Special Olympics offers more than 1.4 million children and adults with intellectual disabilities year-round training and competition in twenty-six Olympic-type summer and winter sports with no charge to participate (Shriver 2003).
"A person with an intellectual disability is one who, from childhood, develops at a below average rate…the person experiences unusual difficulty in learning and has difficulty in applying the skills needed for daily living" (Best Buddies). More than 7.5 million Americans have an intellectual disability (formally known as mental retardation) and more than 200 causes have been identified.
The Special Olympics story is an unprecedented global movement that, through quality sports training and competition, improves the lives of people with intellectual disabilities, and in turn the lives of everyone they touch (Shriver 2003). It allows these people to realize their full potential and develop skills to become fulfilled and productive members of their families and the communities in which they live.
The 2015 Special Olympics World Summer Games opened on July 25, 2015 in Los Angeles, California (Special Olympics). The city was host to 6,500 Special Olympics athletes from 165 nations competing in 25 Olympic-type sports (Special Olympics).
Special Olympics founder Eunice Kennedy Shriver created the "Athlete Oath" of the Special Olympics. She opened the first Special Olympics Games with these words that are still recited today before every activity: "Let me win. But if I cannot win, let me be brave in the attempt" (Special Olympics 2004, NP).
Importance
The Special Olympics is a grass-roots movement that provides opportunities for a usually ignored group of people and the rest of society. Chicago Mayor Richard Daley said to Shriver, "You know, Eunice, the world will never be the same after this" on the day of the first International Special Olympic Games (Ibid, NP). This has been true for the disabled, their families, their peers and the rest of society. The families of Special Olympics athletes are encouraged to play an active role in their community program, to share in the training of athletes and to assist in the public education effort needed to create greater understanding of the emotional, physical, social and spiritual needs of people with intellectual disabilities and their families (Zulewski 1994).
Special Olympics activities take place in public, with full coverage by the media, so that athletes with intellectual disabilities may reveal to the world those special qualities of the human spirit in which they excel—skill, courage, sharing and joy (Harmer 1992). The program aspired to change the negative attitudes and misperceptions about people with intellectual disabilities, replacing stigma and rejection with an emphasis on potential, ability, and acceptance (Ibid).
CEO Timothy Shriver says the Special Olympics will serve as the method for lasting change in the public’s attitudes toward the inclusion of individuals with intellectual disabilities in every aspect of society in every country on the planet (Shriver 2003). Shriver leads the International Board of Directors and serves together with over 5.6 million Special Olympics athletes in 172 countries to promote health, education, and a more unified world through the joy of sports (Special Olympics).
2. 5 Music and performing arts – aim, scope and importance for children with developmental disabilities.
There have been many instances where children have fared average or below average in academic subjects but excelled in sports or arts or music. It is now recognized that there is more to preparation than just academic learning. Bright and Mofley (1977) stress that the ultimate test of our educational system pertains to its effectiveness in assessing students to have a well balanced emotional and intellectual life that includes leisure participation.
Educators
are beginning to realize that creative activities not only help develop
individual potentials and talent, but enhance learning certain academic
concepts. They are interesting, fun to do and experiential. How many of you can
remember learning information through a relaxed conversation than through drilling
or lecture method? The same implies to children. Learning becomes enjoyable,
and there are opportunities to enhance their skills in language, motor
abilities and socialization.
Activities such as music and dance, crafts, sports and games and other physical
exercises and computers are now being included in the regular timetable. They
are now referred to as co-curricular activities. Trained teachers in each one
of these areas are appointed and children given a choice to pursue the activity
of their interest. In case of children with mental retardation also, the
importance of co-curricular activities in their growth and development is well
recognized. Many educators have realized that their education must extend
beyond the environment of the classroom. Most of them have a disproportionately
large amount of leisure time when compared with their non-retarded peers. If
they do not acquire skills to utilize their leisure time meaningfully, the
problems will be compounded as they grow up. Also, as in the case of all
children, creative activities may enhance their learning of academic skills,
improve self-image and provide avenues for vocation.
Howard Gardner lists 7 intelligences namely, 1) linguistic intelligence, 2) musical intelligence, 3) spatial intelligence, 4) bodily kinesthetic intelligence, 5) analytical intelligence, 6) interpersonal intelligence, 7) intrapersonal intelligence. He urges the trainers of children with learning problems in academics to look for other abilities in them. Bodily kinesthetic intelligence reflects in performing arts (dance for instance) and games and sports. Musical intelligence is seen in some of the mentally retarded persons with even moderate degree of retardation, excelling in Tabla, Guitar or vocal music.
VISUAL ARTS
What
are Visual Arts?
Visual arts include all those activities, which involve use of a variety of
materials of different colours, shapes and textures in the environment, to
create something that we use or admire and/or appreciate. These creations may
be of aesthetic value – to be admired as art objects or of some use. The common
media through which visual arts are expressed are painting, craft, sculpture,
needle craft, weaving and pottery to name a few.
How
are they useful?
All children like to take pride in what they have created on their own and look
forward to praise and admiration from others. Similarly, children with mental
retardation also have the ability to create, take pride in and be admired for
their creativity, provided the tasks are broken into smaller steps and are
given more time and assistance.
Involving them in creative activities will enhance their visual perception,
fine motor co ordination, and improve attention and concentration. These will
give an opportunity to develop appropriate social skills.
How
do you plan your activities?
It is very important to plan the method of processing each activity for
children with mental retardation. The teaching situation should have more
visual, auditory, tactile, kinesthetic involvement and less abstract commands.
Visual cues: When introducing a new activity, demonstrate it first, so that the child sees what participation would be like. Demonstration is very valuable to communicate the nature of the activity as well as in serving as a model of appropriate behaviour.
Auditory cues: Repeated verbal explanation, and simple step-by-step instruction in the activity communicate information and feedback to the student.
Tactile cues: The activity to receive information through the sense of touch has proven invaluable for children with metal retardation, specially so, for those with sensory impairments.
Decide on materials needed, style of presentation, stages of presentation and student involvement before you begin. Be ready with alternatives if things do not go as you planned. Do not make the children wait. They will be distracted and motivating again will be difficult.
Activities We shall now see how activities can be carried out for specific groups of children, keeping in mind their functional abilities, developmental level and degree of retardation.
Pre
primary level
The
age range in this group is generally between 3 to 6 years. At this age it is
important that children play and enjoy themselves and hence conduct activities
in a friendly and informal atmosphere. Collect a variety of materials from the
environment and make sure that they are harmless, nontoxic and easy for
children to handle. Activities suitable for this age would be paper tearing/
rolling/ crumpling, pasting, finger/hand/foot printing, colouring and spray
painting, clay modeling and printing with moulds such as leaves, vegetables,
cotton or sponge. As a creative teacher it is important that you plan each
activity well in advance by following these guidelines.
- Use locally available material such as old paper, leaves, twigs, flowers, coconut fiber, jute, cotton, sponge, wool, pieces of cloth, shells. Sand.
- Involve children in looking around and collecting – this enhances observation and exploration skills.
- Demonstrate each activity, break tasks into smaller steps
- Guide each child physically or verbally as required
- Divide children into groups. By this, you will be providing opportunities to learn turn taking and sharing.
- Use water colours and non toxic colours. They could wear an apron or an oversized shirt over their dress to prevent their clothes from getting dirty.
- Make sure that the materials are safe to handle without sharp edges, and children do not put them in their mouth.
- Praise every attempt of participation. This will help sustain attention and interest.
- Do not insist on definite form and perfection. Allow them to do the activity according to their abilities. Emphasis should be on participation and not on the perfection of the product.
- Display their creations and invite others to see and appreciate them – this reinforces participation.
- Tell them the name, color, shape size and texture of each material as they work.
- Provide many opportunities to practice each skill, because most of them have short attention span and are easily bored.
Sample activity 1: paper craft
Materials: Newspaper, wrapping paper or colour paper and gum.
Give each child a sheet of paper and ask her to tear it to pieces. Apply gum on another sheet of paper and ask her to paste the pieces on it. Alternatively, ask the children to crumple them and paste. Draw any figure around the pasted pieces, or let each child paste inside a drawn figure. Break each task into smaller steps and teach.
Here is how you can break the task into smaller steps:
- hold the given paper in both the hands
- use thumb and fingers to tear paper into long strips
- tear it into small pieces
- put them in a box
- take a brush
- dip it in gum
- apply it inside given figure
- take each piece of paper
- paste it on to the figure
- allow it to dry
Hold the child ‘s hand and guide through each step or wherever required telling her in simple sentences what to do. Repeat instructions and praise every attempt.
Use brightly coloured paper to motivate them to
participate.
Try pasting other materials such as dried leaves or flowers, cloth or seeds.
Sample activity 2: Printing
Materials:
water
colours, paper, pieces of vegetables such as potato, ladies finger, carrot, or
leaves or coconut fiber.
Give each child a sheet of paper, wet sponge, wet sponge with paint and any one of the above materials. Ask him to dip the piece of vegetable in paint and press it on paper. Sequence the task as shown in task analysis earlier. Initially, let children dip their fingers/palms/ foot in paint and print. Display their creations.
Sample activity 3: Clay modelling
Materials: potters clay/ mud/
plasticine/ play dough
Make sure the above material is smooth and free of stones or twigs. Allow each
child to handle it and make his own shapes. Demonstrate making a few models and
let children make similar ones if they can. Do not insist that they make exact
replicas. Ask them to name what they have created. Make your
own play dough….. Make your own play dough by mixing 1 cup
of flour to 1 cup salt. Add water and 1 spoon oil and colour powder. Some
children may be hesitant to work with clay. Before introducing activity, give
repeated practice of squeezing wet and dry sponge, rubber balls, hinge sound
making toys and other materials of different textures. Parents could help them
practice at home by also asking them to knead small amounts of dough.
Use creativity and add more activities.
Primary level
Children
at this level usually have a basic understanding of names, colours and type of
materials that they use. Let the group choose what they want to do – provide
required materials and give a specific topic for creation. Children with severe
mental retardation may not be aware of the above concepts but it is important
that you create an environment which allows them to participate at their own
level in each activity. For example, if the activity is paper tearing, allow
the child to hold it in his hand and manipulate it in his own way. Make a small
tear at the top edge, help him to hold it with his thumb and fingers and tear
the paper completely. Give him more time and provide physical guidance till he
does it on his own. Children with mild and moderate mental retardation will be
able to work on given topic, provided the activity is demonstrated initially
using clear simple instructions.
Activities suitable to this group include painting, colouring, making collages,
clay modeling, needlework, cutting and pasting. Creative activities can
actually be an extension of academic lesson taught. For example, if you have
done a lesson on vegetables, let children cut and paste pictures of vegetables,
draw and colour vegetable figures, or make clay models of vegetables. By doing
this, you will be reinforcing their learning, provide visual, concrete
experiences and make learning an enjoyable task.
By working in groups, they learn to share, co-operate, wait for turn and
appreciate each others work. Initially let them make their own creations Later
give them specific topics to work on, depending on their abilities.
Example: draw/ paint flowers or scenery, draw a picture of celebration of current festival/ seasons, make models of fruits/ household objects/ animals and birds.
Allow them to choose their own colours. Ask them ‘ do you
want red or blue’. If they have difficulty in choosing, provide cues like ‘
look at this green ball – choose a matching colour’
There may be some children who can draw simple figures such as sun. In such a
case, draw outlines of a simple scenery, without a sun. Ask child to draw the
sun and colour the picture. This provides a sense of achievement in him.
Some children may know how to draw basic shapes very well. Guide them to make interesting figures using a combination of few shapes.
Sample activity: Making a collage
Materials: Wool or colored thread, pieces of cloth, gum, paper.
- Demonstrate the activity first, describing each step in simple sentences as you do. Make a collage of a tree.
- Give each child a set of material and paper. Guide him to paste thread or wool for trunk and branches.
- Ask him to paste pieces of cloth for leaves, fruits and flowers. Repeat instructions in simple words and physically guide if required till he does it on his own.
- Similarly demonstrate making a collage of human figure as shown below.
Activities at Secondary/Prevocational level
As
in Primary level, here too, children are aware of basic concepts of colour,
shape and texture. Creative activities could be used as a means for developing
hobbies or leisure time activities or as vocational activities. There are many
ways in which you can train them to develop and use appropriate social skills,
such as;
- making greeting cards, gift boxes and letter pads for friends and relatives,
- making paper craft, rangoli and mehindi designs for appropriate occasions
Activities such as painting on pots, weaving and stitching, embroidery, bead work, fabric printing, could be developed into vocational skills as they grow older, which will not only develop their creative potential but also contribute towards making them as independent as possible by becoming wage earners.
Activity 1
Stitching: Many children good at embroidery and weaving. Readily available
cross stitch cloth with simple designs printed and colours indicated can be
used to teach them embroidery.
Some of them may require simplification of the process. To introduce stitching, punch holes in a cardboard at even intervals. Give each student a long shoelace and ask her to bring it in and out of connective holes, line wise. Next, provide a large needle and firm cloth.
Draw straight lines on the cloth in contrast colours. Let the student practice repeatedly.
Activity 2: making letter pads
Materials: plain
paper, paint, crayons, card board
Take a plain sheet of paper. Cover it with cardboard, leaving ˝ -1 inch paper
at the bottom edge. Let the child color it with paint or crayons. In this
manner, prepare as many sheets as required. Bind them together. Take two plain
sheets and let children do finger printing on it. Use these as front and back
covers. Your letter pad is ready!
There may be students who may not be able to hold a crayon or brush. Ask such a student to press the side of his palm in point and print on paper.
Activity 3: Making Placemats
Materials: Small
pressed leaves and flowers, cardboard of chosen colour, lamination facility.
Cut cardboard/thick paper in the size of dining table placemats. Paste pressed
flowers and leaves artistically on both sides. Laminate both sides. All these
can be done by the retarded youngster – right from pressing leaves and flowers
to laminating. Each set of six when sold will fetch him his pocket money!!
PERFORMING ARTS
Performing arts are a means of expression; of ideas, concepts, thoughts, opinions and abilities, through drama, dance, movement and music. Performance could be through any one of the above media or a combination of two or more.
Importance
of performing arts for children with mental retardation
Right
from infancy, children listen to music, enjoy making movements to music and
listening to stories, especially if they include action and voice modulation.
Traditionally, we have had the privilege of enjoying listening to
verses/stories/songs narrated by our grandparents- drawn from our rich cultural
heritage, across all religions. Mentally retarded children are no exception to
them. Broadly, teaching of performing arts benefit children with mental
retardation in the following ways.
- improve cognitive skills – history and mythology awareness of current social conditions
- develop and stimulate social skills – morals and values expression of emotions and feelings
- develop and stimulate motor skills – gross and fine motor development, expression of inner abilities and talents
- opportunity for expression with therapeutic value.
It is well known that fables featuring animals and supernatural characters such as Panchatantra, Hitopadesha and Aesop’s fables have been repeatedly used to educate children who were labled slow or dull. Recently, various dance forms and playing musical instruments are being tried to reduce hyperactivity. World over, music, dance and drama as therapies are becoming a part of remedial education for children with developmental disabilities. Specific methodologies, are used for set goals according to needs and evaluated.
Children with mental retardation can be taught to appreciate as well as perform these activities, provided they are taught.
- in small sequences
- with concrete models
- in simple steps
Use of performing arts helps you establish a close rapport with children, handle large groups and make learning enjoyable and teaching less tiring for you. According to the age level, you can teach them a variety of activities such as clapping hands, simple rhythmic movements and miming to complex dance forms, singing or playing musical instruments and drama. They contribute towards individual’s overall development and build/improve self- confidence.
As mentioned earlier, it is important that the right cues – auditory, tactile, visual or kinesthetic be selected while planning, depending on individual needs and abilities. Cues should be gradually faded to facilitate independent participation. For example, physically guide a child to do a hand movement in a dance rather than saying right/left, which is abstract. Gradually reduce support and introduce the music.
Activities
Let us now see what kind of activities can be taken up for children at various
levels of functioning.
Pre primary level
Children
at this age enjoy rhymes and rhythm and dramatized stories, especially those
involving animal characters.
Sing nursery rhymes along with actions to
- create body awareness and awareness of space around them by assessing and guiding a child’s body through space or by calling attention to the position of the body-by this stimulus for kinesthetic awareness is provided.
- teach communication skills such as words / gestures for expression of basic needs, feelings and emotions.
- build in group co-operation skills such as sharing, turn taking and interacting.
- develop cognitive skills.
Sing or play recorded music and encourage children to move rhythmically or in whatever way they can. According to their abilities, they could do whole body movements, wave hands, shake legs or tap feet or just move their heads. Playing on a percussion instrument is reported to calm down aggressive children. Identification of words fast/slow, loud/soft, high/low can be taught using drumbeats or just by clapping. Allow those children who are shy, just to watch others initially. Gently draw their attention to what is happening. A large mirror in the classroom is a great idea to provide visual feedback, to enable children to see what they are doing, imitate and admire.
Here are some rhymes/songs, which are fun and educative at the same time.
For teaching parts of the body use……..
“Head shoulders knees and toes”
“Clap your hands
tap your feet…….”
Chubby cheeks…..”
“Put your right hand in…….
Do the boogies Woogie…..”
“Here we go round the mulberry bush”
can be used to teach concept of daily routine.
Develop your own rhymes in the local language, which are
more culture appropriate and understandable for children.
Draw basic shapes of circle, square and triangle on the floor and guide
children to move on the outlines to the accompaniment of music.
Exaggeratedly mime activities of daily routine and let
children observe and imitate. Name each activity. Encourage them to name.
Make use of masks and puppets and dramatize familiar stories in 3-4 sequences.
Let children wear the masks and observe themselves in the mirror.
Activities for older children Musical activities: Children at primary/secondary levels learn various concepts under environmental studies, social studies, mathematics and science. You could use popular folk tunes or film tunes to create your own rhymes to help them learn the above concepts. Using song form makes learning interesting and enjoyable and helps children to recall what they have learnt quickly.
Rhythmic clapping or drumbeat can be used to teach them
to count, identify loud and soft sounds and concepts of faster and slower. Ex:
say the number three and ask them to clap thrice.
Sing the seven musical notes and ask them to repeat each sound after you,
sustaining each note. This may help to enhance verbal communication.
Sing or play a tape of popular songs. Let them listen and repeat. This could be
used as an activity reward for having completed a given task.
Older children may be taught folk songs in their regional language.
- Select songs which do not have too many variations in tune and which are repetitive.
- During music class, encourage each child to sing 2-3 lines of any popular song, which he has heard on the radio or seen on the T.V.
- Have 15 minutes of ‘listening session’ where you play soft music and children sit quietly and listen.
- There are children who have innate sense of rhythm. They could be taught to play simple rhythms on the tabla or dholak.
- Make a musical band in the class and let each child play an instrument such as the cymbals, bells, tambourine or the keyboard.
- Include music period in the regular time-table, have them practice everyday.
- Provide opportunities for them to perform during celebration on National and regional festivals in school and during school day celebrations.
- Encourage them to listen to music during leisure time at home.
Dance activities
Initially, let them form a circle, hold hands and move to music, clockwise and anticlockwise. This will help in warming up. Encourage group participation.
Slowly introduce movements such as raising and lowering hands, coming to centre of the circle and going back, sitting and standing, holding hands on waist and tapping feet. Tying bells (ghungroos) at the feet will make the activity very enjoyable. Also try giving each child a colorful baton or ribbon to motivate them to move.
Take them out to a local school performance or play a
videotape of folk dances – tell them to which region it belongs. Draw their
attention to the costumes and make up.
Children enjoy dressing in colourful costumes. Include ‘show time’ in your
timetable where children get a chance to dress in dance costumes and wear
make-up. This will help them overcome stage fear and increase their self-esteem.
They can be taught formal dance, provided each step is
taught in small sequences and repeated. For example – first teach hand
movements, then feet and then whole body. Counting 1-2, for each sequence will
help them remember the sequence. Once they have learnt the steps, introduce the
song.
Some children with severe mental retardation may need to be addressed
individually, require physical guidance and told repeatedly what to do such
as-‘ Raju, bend down, move your left hand’ and once he has learnt, proceed to
the next step.
Drama
Drama can be used to enhance learning of concepts, teach appropriate social
behavior, safety rules and hygiene, current events and about our culture and
environment. The visual and auditory cues which drama provides improves learning
and retention. You can also use drama to teach them express emotions such as
anger, fear and happiness.
Activities
Children at pre-primary/primary level learn to name animals, their food habits
and their habitat. Their learning of these concepts can be enhanced through
drama.
Theme
Example: (A lion throws a party and invites some of his friends over. At the
party there is a large table with a variety of food. The lion introduces
himself. He tells each one of the animals gathered there to tell their names,
where they live and what they would like to eat. Each animal chooses his
favourite dish from the table. After eating, all the animals dance and have fun
together.)
Appropriate music is played at the background and children are dressed in animal
costumes. (use masks if costumes are not available). A large cloth, painted
with trees and flowers can be used as backdrop.
Dialogues should be simple and short.
Example:
Lion: I am a lion
I live in a den
I like to eat meat
And go hunting at night.
Similarly each animal introduces himself. Back in classroom, encourage discussion on the play. For older children, role-play, pretend play or mime can be used, both as a recreational activity as well as an educative one. While planning, consider the following points.
- Demonstrate role-play.
- Select themes, which they are familiar with such as
- a typical morning at home,
- at the doctor’s/ dentist’s clinic,
- rainy day- getting wet- consequence or
- teacher in a classroom.
Select sequences from mythology and popular folklore and teach them to enact. Dialogues could be delivered at the background and children trained to mouth the words or mime appropriately. Also record sounds of children crying, laughing and shouting and use this in the background according to the scene. If children are required to use dialogues, make sure it is in familiar language and short.
Children who have difficulty in walking could be given roles where they require to just sit on a throne or be still as an idol or simple repetitive activities like fanning the king or as ushers.
Children who are fond of moving around may be dressed in animal costumes and allowed to run on stage during a forest scene. Make sure it is appropriate and in context.
During craft class, let children do leaf/finger printing on large sheets of paper. Stick them together and use as backdrop for drama.
ORGANIZING AND COORDINATING VISUAL/PERFORMING ART PROGRAMMERS
Training the children in visual and performing art activities is one aspect of CCA and coordination of such activities is another aspect. This requires skills in communication, arranging for resources which may be human resources, materials, funds, publicity…. when the children with mental retardation are found talented in certain areas, creating public awareness by organizing, exhibition, fete and shows is in order. This will not only make the public aware of the brighter side of these children/adults, but also improve the self-esteem of the retarded individual.
The various abilities a teacher should have in achieving this include;
1. Coordinate among trainers and students
2. Contact industries and public/private sector undertaking to sponsor shows or materials. For instance paper, crayon, paints and other raw material can be sponsored by stationery companies.
3. Make them realize it is not charity but an avenue to exhibit talents of persons with special needs.
4. Contact media/publicity persons for good coverage, a person with mental retardation will also like to see himself on T.V. and newspaper.
5. Get a popular visual and performing artists in your region to actively participate by making them patrons.
6. In your school, make sure there are regular classes of visual and performing arts and all teachers and students take part. Make a slot in the timetable.
7. Whenever possible involve nonretarded peers in organizing conducting programmes.
8. Be in touch with agencies like VSA to know the current trends and make sure your students participate throughout the year, to earmark some occasion and interschool activities in visual/performing arts taken place. Be informed and make use of it.
9. Always look for an opportunity to organize such activities.
SPORTS
Physical education plays a very important role in helping a child with mental retardation understand his body in (motion) movement and at rest. It includes instructions in relaxation, opportunities for creative expression, social interaction, practice and scope for selecting meaningful leisure time skills. It builds self confidence and improves one’s self-image.
Adapted
Physical Education
Definition:
Adapted physical education is the body of knowledge that focuses upon
identification and remediation of problems within the psychomotor domain in
individuals who need assistance in mainstream education or specially designed
physical education services. Since adapted physical education is a part of
special education, a multi-disciplinary approach is very essential, as each
child’s developmental level and needs differ. It gives scope for educators to
develop skills in students through assimilation of many disciplines by
including lessons in recreational skills, music and dance, art and drama.
Children with mild or moderate mental retardation who have motor abilities
similar to non-disabled persons may be trained in physical exercises, sports
and games with slight modifications in terms of rules and complexity of the
games. Organizations like the special Olympics give them opportunities to
exhibit their skills at national and international levels. You will learn more
about special Olympics in the next unit. However, children with severe/profound
mental retardation in whom physical growth and development are grossly delayed
require adaptations and training needs to be done at a sensori motor level.
Sensori
motor training
Sensori motor training, which is the earliest form of physical education for
children with mental retardation is done in four main areas of behaviour –
namely, (a) level of awareness, (b) movement, (c) manipulation of environment,
(d) posture and locomotion.
1. Level of awareness – help the child to recognize pleasant/unpleasant stimuli – exercise discrimination in anticipating or avoiding future contacts. To evolve avoidance reactions, try hot/cold water, vigorous toweling of skin, restraints such as splints on legs and weight, taps from rubber, hammer and extreme tastes such as alum or lemon. For approach reactions, try pleasant stimuli such as bell ringing, music, human voice, colourful objects, cuddling or drawing closer. Also – children are drilled on discriminatory reactions such as responding to name, obeying simple verbal/gestural commands, or turning towards objects when named.
2. Movement – As the child becomes aware of sensory stimuli, he must be trained to make more motor adjustments. Initially all purposive movements must be initiated by teacher – (carry, rock, roll, bounce, swing the child). Child may begin with active assistance leading to independent movement. Progression –> roll to side, roll to front to back, roll completely over, roll in a barrel, roll over pillows, rock on a chain or hose, bounce on a bed, jump to seat – swing in hammock or trampoline – continue till sufficient muscle strength is developed to allow sitting and standing postures without external support.
3. Manipulation of environment – This implies teaching – reaching, grasping, releasing, throwing, holding, passing from hand to hand, rubbing, squeezing, tasting, pounding, shaking, pulling apart and deassembling. It also includes communication – through sounds, gestures, words and self help skills with assistance.
4. Posture and locomotion – start with lifting head, with lying in different positions, motivate by ringing bell or smell food.
- If needed, use straps, wheel chairs, corner seats for correct seating position. Use rollers/walkers to facilitate creeping, standing, walking.
- Repeatedly physically guide through physical movements.
- Use mirror and sound effect. Reinforce positive response/attempts.
- They can be helped to remain fit, even through they may not walk or run.
- Teacher may use music/rhythm – at stipulated time for 5-10 minutes everyday and physically guide through same exercises/drills for best results.
- For posture training – use peer-modelling, role play, behaviour management, body awareness and relaxation activities.
Teaching strategies
Eg. Jumping: Students with mental retardation will be able to learn this skill
through task analysis. Before teaching jumping, teach children to fall safely
from standing position (a prerequisite movement). This could be done using
music and movement activities such as holding hands and moving in a circle and
falling down, when you say “all fall down”. Also be more creative and show
children creatures which naturally jump such as a grasshopper or a frog!
Such children find it easier to jump from a height to the floor rather than from a crouching position, because losing stability from a height is easier than from the floor.
Find different things in the environment from which children can jump.
1. Jump down from 8-inch step.
2. Jump down form 12-inch step.
3. Jump down form 18-inch bench.
4.
Jump down from 24-inch
bench.
Similarly, task analyze activities such as throwing, rolling ball, reaching and
pulling. Plan on what movement patterns should they possess before doing the
actual task? How will you help them learn these movements?
Planning physical education for persons with
mild mental retardation
Do children with mental
retardation need Special Physical Education programmes?
Such children are capable of successfully participating in regular physical education classes provided placement is done taking into account the physical and motor learning characteristics of each child. Although they may not acquire high degree of skill of children without disabilities, they can acquire sufficient skills to participate in different activities to increase their physical fitness and improve their body mechanics.
Placement should be flexible in physical training programmes. Some may be placed in special classes, others may be placed in regular classes for small portion of every period. Some may be competent enough to be integrated into a complete physical training period. While placing, keep in mind:
- their motor skills.
- physical fitness performance.
- social maturity level.
- level of support and modifications needed and
- curricular consideration.
No placement should be considered final and periodic evaluation should be made.
How many can one teacher handle at a time?
Physical
education teachers should endeavour to maintain a class conducive to learning.
The student-teacher ratio will vary according to the motor skill level of the child
and the ability of the teacher. One teacher may teach 10-12 students with mild
mental retardation at a time. Research suggests that using trained peer tutors
can provide beneficial experiences for students (Houston-Wilson, 1993).
But there is not enough space.....
A
distraction-free area in a classroom is sufficient to begin instructions, and
opportunities should be provided to utilize new skills within larger
environment.
Initially student interest may exist but may not be sustained. To reduce boredom, use attractive pictures, music or play equipment before introducing actual activity. Use sitting and moving activities alternatively.
Do we need a lot of equipment?
Yes. A wide variety of play equipment is desirable – enough for each specific
activity so that no child need sit around, waiting for a turn. In addition to
commercially available equipment, as an innovative teacher, you may explore the
possibilities of using many ordinary items such as boxes/cartons, used tyres,
barrels and large pipes, rope, tree trunks, boards and planks.
How can we teach them the importance of physical fitness?
Several researchers have concluded that children with mental retardation tend
to have low levels of physical fitness. The low levels may be probably due to
lack of opportunity and appropriate programs. But, if programmes are
systematically developed and implemented, you will see significant improvement.
- Communicate and demonstrate the importance of physical fitness. Observing a teacher doing `exercises’ or `work-out’ helps a student understand that running and flexibility exercises are fun.
- Break the task into smaller steps and base the amount of instruction according to level of functioning of each child. Repetitive and extended practice are essential.
- Establish goals and criteria for success and provide extrinsic motivators such as graphic pictures for improvement, appreciation by the rest of the group, stars and other tokens after each step in achievement.
- Test frequently to make sure students are improving. If not modify the programme.
- Ensure maintenance and generalization through parent and family involvement. Provide frequent feedback to them and emphasize the need for balanced diet along with a fitness routine.
- Provide a developmental programme of twenty to thirty minutes daily that contributes to strength, flexibility and endurance.
What activities are most suitable Can they follow rules
Most children with mild mental retardation can participate in regular sports and games, provided they are integrated as early as possible. They must be introduced to recreation facilities available in the community like swimming, hockey, ball games, skating, cricket, athletics, and other sports events. Participation should begin right at primary level so that as they grow older, these activities are channelized into recreational/leisure time activities or lifetime sports. They should be trained to express their creativity, emotions, imitation skills, anger and elation verbally or non-verbally.
These children are capable of achieving success in team games like anybody else, provided systematic training begins early in life.
Children with moderate mental retardation may participate in games with minimal rules such as running, hopping, skipping, aim and throw, jump rope activities and skating, and in team games like hockey, throw ball and cricket but may not follow all the rules. Older children may perform in individual events like track, swimming and gymnastics.
Activities and adaptations
1. Ball throw
Have children stand in a line one behind the other. The first child is given three chances to throw a soft ball to a peer standing at a distance. He goes to the end of the line after 3 attempts. The peer rolls the ball back to the next child in the row. The child who throws farthest or succeeds in reaching the peer is considered winner.
Modifications:
Reduce distance, vary the size and texture of the ball. Place a box or a pot to
throw the ball into. For children with associated impairments such as
blindness, use a ball which makes noise. Allow children who cannot stand, to
sit and throw.
2. Track and field events
To train positioning of hands and feet in place before signal is given for
running, mark outlines of hand and foot where the student has to place them.
Use brightly coloured flag or a loud whistle for starting the race. Mark the
tracks, starting and finishing points clearly. In a relay race, use bright
coloured batons. Reduce the distance for children who have difficulty in
running.
3. Wall ball (Primary level)
Divide players into groups of six. They stand in lines perpendicular to a wall,
four feet apart. Mark distances every foot, three to eight feet from the wall.
First child in each row throws and catches the ball off the wall three times.
He then moves to the next mark and repeats throw and catch. If he misses, he
goes to the end of the line and the next player gets his turn.
The team where all members finish are winners. A player who completes catches
at each mark has finished playing. Others repeat the throw and catch at the
point where they missed previously.
4. Balancing activities – book balancing, balancing on
beam
If the child has limited balance,
- provide support of chair, wall, beam.
- teach him to widen base, extend arms.
- use non slippery surfaces.
- teach how to fall safely.
- allow him to hold peers hand.
5. Jump rope activities
- reduce height with rope held low.
- use brightly coloured rope.
- provide practice in jumping from different heights prior to actual activity.
6. Target activities
Stack empty tins like a pyramid manner. Give each child three chances to aim
and hit the tins. Ask others to count the number of tins fallen. Vary the
targets to be hit. Reduce distance, size and texture of ball if the child has
problems in coordination. Provide a backdrop for easy visibility. Place targets
at ground level and allow child to roll the ball if he has difficulty in
throwing.
For older students – during games such as shuttle, throw ball, volley ball and basket ball reduce the height of the basket or net. Take them out to watch matches between local teams or on television. Organize friendly cricket matches where students can play with neighbouring school teams.
Games in which the student’s disability becomes an asset, provide excellent opportunities for group cooperation. For example, Blind fold all participants and ask them to locate source of a sound. Student with visual impairment may give them cues to locate.
7. Team games
Team games are especially important for persons with mental retardation because
they provide opportunities for large muscle activities necessary for
maintaining physical fitness. They also enhance their abilities to contribute
to the group effort, and of course social competencies.
Cricket is one of the most favourite games in our country. This can be easily taught with few modifications. Some children may need intensive training in each of the these areas before beginning the game. Begin with throwing and catching the ball. To reduce monotony, have two teams stand in row facing one another. Ask the first child in one row to throw the ball to the child facing him. He catches it and throws to the second child opposite. Continue catching and throwing till the end of the row. Reshuffle the order and teams. Alternatively, let one team stand and the others change positions – sit, crouch, lie down and catch the ball. Once they learn to catch, increase the distance between teams.
For training in taking runs, ask each child to choose a partner. Ask the child who has motor problems to be umpire. Provide prompts for calling/signaling a run.
There are numerous games that children play. Select the game adapt if needed and train the students with mental retardation using the correct blend of creativity and teaching principles.